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J. G. HOLMSTROM 



American Blacksmithing, Toolsmiths' 

AND 

Steelworkers' Manual 



BLACKSMITHING 

It comprises particulars and details regarding the anvil, 
tool table, sledge, tongs, hammers, how to use them, 
correct position at anvil, welding, tube expand- 
ing, the horse, ana«tomy of the foot, horse- 
shoes, horseshoeing, hardening a 
plowshare, babbitting, etc. 



TOOLSMITHING AND STEELWOTIKING 

Covers composition of cast tool steel, heating, forging, 

hammering, hardening, etc. Tempering, welding, 

annealing, cause of tools cracking when hardening. 

To tell good from poor steel. Instructions in 

tool making. Punching holes, etc. Heavy, 

hot, cold and railroad chisels, drills 

and drilling. How to make a 

gun, revolver, trap and all 

fine springs. Colors of 

temper, etc. 



FULLY ILLUSTRATED 
By I^OLMSTROM and HOLFORD 



Special Exclusive Edition 
Printed by 

FREDERICK J. DRAKE & CO. 

EXPRESSLY FOR 

SEARS, ROEBUCK & COMPANY 
CHICAGO, ILL. 

inn 



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\ 



COPYEIGHT 1911 

BY 

rEEDEEICK J. DeAKE. 



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©CI.A2S5244 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 



PAGE. 

Frontispiece 3 

The Smith 10 

The Shop 32 

The Anvil 33 

Tool Table 35 

The Sledge 38 

Blacksmith's Tongs 39 

Hammers - 42 

Wrenches 46 

Correct Position at the Anvil 50 

Water Tuyer 53 

Blowers ^4 

Standing Coulter 60 

Holstrom Tire Holder 81 

Tire m Sections 83 

Axle and Gather Gauge 86 

John Deere, Inventor of Plows 89 

Plow of 200 years ago 93 

Plowshares 95-112 

Japanese Plow 105 

Bench for Holding Plows 106 

Tube for Welding 1^8 

3 



4 ILLUSTRATIONS. 

PAGE 

Tube Expander 129 

The Horse 133 

Horse Shoes 134 to 157 

Foot, The Natural „ , 147 

Foot Prepared for Cartier Tips 150. 

Foot Shod with Cartier Tips 150 

Ring Bone 154 

Anatomy of the Foot 154 

Clamping Iron 156 

Sand Crack Clamps 157 

Cracked Walls. , , , 157 

Quarter Crack 157 

Easy Position for Finishing ............. 161 

Spavin 168 

Lathe, The „ „ ..„ o.,, ..,,.... o .« ... . 184 




PREFACE 

'HAT prompted the author to prepare this 
book was the oft - repeated question, by- 
blacksmiths and mechanics of all kinds, as 
well as farmers: "Is there a book treating 
on this or that?" etc., etc. To all these 
queries I was compelled to answer in the negative, 
for it is a fact that from the time of Cain, the first 
mechanic, there has never been a book written by 
a practical blacksmith on subjects belonging to his 
trade. If, therefore, there has ever been such a thing 
as "filling a long-felt want," this must certainly be a 
cas:. of that kind. 

In medicine we find a wide difference of opinion, 
even amongst practitioners of the same school, in 
treating diseases. Now, if this is so where there is a 
system, and authority for the profession, how much 
more so must there be a difference of opinion in a 
trade where every practitioner is his own authority. 
I shall, therefore, ask the older members of the black- 
smith fraternity to be lenient in their judgment if my 
ideas don't coincide with theirs. To the apprentice 

5 



I 



6 PREFACE 

and journeyman I would say: do as I do until you find 
a better way. 

The author has been eminently successful in his 
practice, and his ideas have been sought by others 
wherever he has been, blacksmiths coming even from 
other States to learn his ways. 

This little book is fresh from the anvil, the author 
taking notes during the day while at work, compiling 
the same into articles at night. 

He is indebted to a number of writers for articles in 
this book treating on subjects belonging to their 
trades, in which they have been regarded as experts 



. Wovj there was no smith found in all the land of Israel 
I Sam. ij:ig. 



CHAPTER I 




THE SMITH 

I OR centuries the blacksmith has been 
a prominent person, and it is 
natural he should have been, when 
we consider the variety of work 
he had to do. From the heavy 
axle and tire, down to the smallest 
rivet in the wagon, they were all 
made by the smith. Bells and 
bits as well as the ornamental 
parts of the harness, they were all made by the smith., 
From the crowbar and spade down to the butcher and 
pocket knife, they were all made by the smith. The 
carpenter's tools, from the broadax and adz down to 
the divider and carving steel, they were all made by 
the smith. From the heavy irons in the fireplace down 
to the frying-pan and locks on the kitchen doors; 
knives and forks on the dining-table, they were all 
made by the smith. From the gun on the shoulder of 
the soldier and the saber in the hands of the officer, 
the spurs and pistol for the commander, they were all 
made by the smith. From the heavy anchor and its 

9 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING 

chain to the smallest pulley in the rigging of the ship, 
they were all made by the smith. 

From the weather vane on the church spire, and 




?^^ 



THE SMITH 



the clock in the tower down to the lock of the-doors 
and the artistic iron cross over the graves in the 
church yard, they were all made by the smith. No 
wonder, then, that the smith was respected. Vulgar 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING U 

people swear by the devil, religioiis by the saints, 
but the Swedes (the makers of the best iron) prefer 
to swear by the smith. The smith was a well-liked 
person in society, respected and even admired for his 
skill, his gentlemanly behavior and good language. 
His stories and wit were the sole entertainment in 
many a social gathering. Things have changed in the 
last few decades. Most of the articles formerly made 
by the smith are now manufactured by machinery, 
and the respect for the smith is diminished in the same 
proportion. Not because there is not enough of the 
trade left to command respect — there is yet more left 
than any man can successfully learn in a short life- 
time. But it has made it possible for men with less 
training and ability to enter the trade and consequently 
lower the standing of the smith. The result is, that 
there is a complaint that the smith is not esteemed as 
formerly, and I have been inclined to join in the 
lamentation. But instead of doing this I shall ask my 
brother smiths to unite with me in an effort to elevate 
the craft. 



THERE ARE SMITHS AND SMITHS 

I have had the pleasure of becoming acquainted with 
a great number of intelligent and respected smiths. 
People that did not know them would ask: "What is 
he?" and when informed that he is a blacksmith would 
say: "He doesn't look it; I thought he was a business 
man"; another, "He looks like a lawyer or a minis- 



12 MODERN BLACKSMITHING 

ter. " From this you will understand how, in many 
cases, the. blacksmith looks. A great preacher was 
announced to preach in a neighboring town, and I 
went to hear him. Just as I sat down in the pew one 
of the local smiths walked up to me and sat down by 
my side. He was a blacksmith and he "looked it." 
Under his eyes was a half moon in black; on both 
sides of his nose was a black stripe that had been 
there since his first day in the shop. His ears, well, 
you have seen a clogged-up tuyer iron. His clothes 
were shabby and his breath a strong mixture of 
tobacco and whisky, which made wrinkles on the nose 
of the lady in front of us. I was somewhat embar- 
rassed, but the sermon began. As the congregation 
arose, I opened the hymnbook and my brother smith 
joined, and with a hand that looked like the paw of a 
black bear, he took hold of the book. 

After service I was invited by the smith to dinner. 
Between a number of empty beer kegs we managed to 
reach the door of the house and everything inside 
looked the color of his trade. I looked around for 
books and other articles of culture and found a hand 
organ and a pack of cards. The only book or reading 
matter to be found was a weekly of the kind that tells 
of prize fights, train robberies and murder. I had a 
fair dinner and told my host that I had to start for 
home. By this time I was sick of his language — pro- 
fanity, mixed with a few other words — and I started to 
leave. On my way to the livery stable I passed my 
friend's shop, and he said it would not be fair to leave 
before I had seen his shop. "I have," said he, "a 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING 1,3 

very good shop." The shop was a building of rough 
boards 18x20 — the average farmer has a better wood 
shed. A big wood block like the chopping block in a 
butcher shop, was placed so close to the forge that he 
could only get edgewise between. On this block was 
to be found, anvil and all his tools, the latter were few 
and primitive, and would have been an honor to our 
father Cain, the iirst mechanic and blacksmith. What 
thinkest thou, my brother smith? Having spent years 
to learn the trade you must submit to a comparison 
with smiths of this caliber. Their work being inferior 
they must work cheap, and in some, perhaps many, 
cases set the price on your work. Smiths of this kind 
cannot expect to be respected. There might be some 
show for them in Dawson City or among the natives 
in that vicinity, but not in civilized America. 



M 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING 



INTEMPERANCE 



NE of the chief reasons why 
the blacksmith is not so 
successful nor respected 
as before is his intemper- 
ance. The danger for 
,j the smith becoming a 
drunkard is greater 
than for any other me- 
chanic. It is often the case 
that when a customer pays a 
bill the smith is requested to 
treat. This is a bad habit 
and quite a tax on the smith. 
Just think of it — fifteen cents a day 
spent for liquor, will, in twenty-five years, amount to 
|9,ooo. Then add to this fifteen cents a day for cigars, 
which will, in twenty-five years, amount to $9,000 at 
ten per cent compound interest. If these two items 
would be saved, it will give a man a farm worth 
$18,000 in twenty-five years. How many smiths are 
there who ever think of this? I would advise every 
one to put aside just as much as he spends for liquor 
and tobacco ; that is, when you buy cigars or tobacco 
for twenty-five cents put aside as much. When you 
buy liquor for one dollar put aside one dollar. Try 




MODERN BLACKSMITHING 15 

this for one year and it will stimulate to continual 
effort in that direction. The best thing to do is to 
"swear off" at once, and if you must have it, take it 
out of business hours. Politely inform your friends 
that you must stop, or it will ruin you. If you drink 
with one you must drink with another, and the oppor- 
tunity comes too often. When you have finished some 
difficult work you are to be treated; when you trust 
you are to be treated; when you accommodate one 
before another you are to be treated ; when you order 
the stock from the traveling man you are to be treated. 
Some smiths keep a bottle in a corner to draw custom- 
ers by; others tap a keg of beer every Saturday for the 
same purpose. No smith will ever gain anything by 
this bad practice. He will only get undesirable cus- 
tomers, and strictly temperance people will shun him 
for it. ' What he gains on one side he will lose on 
another. Besides this he will in the long run ruin 
himself physically and financially. Let the old smith 
quit and the apprentice never begin this dangerous 
habit. A smith that is drunk or half drunk cannot do 
his duty to his customers, and they know it, and prefer 
to patronize a sober smith. 



j6 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING 



RELIGION 




RUE religion is also an up- 
lifting factor, and must, if 
accepted, elevate the man, 
I cannot too strong- 
ly emphasize this 
truth. Every smith 
should connect 
himself with some 
branch of the 
church and be punc- 
tual in attendance to the same. There is a great deal 
of difference between families that enjoy the Christian- 
izing, civilizing and uplifting influence of the church 
and those outside of these influences. The smith out- 
side of the church, or he who is not a member thereof 
will, in many cases, be found on Sundays in his shop 
or loafing about in his everyday clothes, his wife and 
children very much like him. The church member — 
his wife and children, are different. Sunday is a great 
day to them. The smith puts on his best clothes, wife 
and children the same. " Everything in and about the 
house has a holiday appearance and the effect on them 
of good music and singing, eloquent preaching, and 
the meeting of friends is manifested in their language, 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING 17 

in their lofty aims, and benevolent acts. Sunday is 
rest and strength to them. 

Brother smiths, six days a week are enough for work. 
Keep the Sabbath and you will live longer and better. 



INCOMPETENCY 

Another reason the smith of to-day is not respected 
is his incompetency. 

When a young man has worked a few months in a 
shop, he will succeed in welding a toe calk on a horse- 
shoe that sometimes will stay, and at once he begins 
to think he knows it all. There will always be some 
fool ready to flatter him, and the young man believes 
that he is now competent to start on his own hook. 
The result is, he hangs out his shingle, begins to prac- 
tice horse-shoeing and general blacksmithing, and he 
knows nothing about either. Let me state here that 
horse-shoeing is a trade by itself, and so is black- 
smithing. In the large cities there are blacksmiths 
who know nothing about horse-shoeing, as well as 
horse-shoers who know nothing about blacksmithing, 
except welding on toe calks, and in many instances 
even that is very poorly done. In small places it is 
different. There the blacksmith is both blacksmith 
and horse-shoer. Sometimes you will find a black-,, 
smith that is a good horse-shoer, but you will never' 
find a horse-shoer that is a good blacksmith. This is 
not generally understood. To many blacksmithing 



i8 MODERN BLACKSMITHING 

seems to mean only horse-shoeing-, and our trade 
journals are not much better posted. Whenever a 
blacksmith is alluded to, or pictured you will always 
find a horse-shoe in connection with it. Yet there are 
thousands of blacksmiths that never made a horse-shoe 
in all their lives. Horse-shoeing has developed to be 
quite a trade, and if a man can learn it in a few years 
he will do well. I would not advise any young man* 
to start out for himself with less than three or four 
years' experience. Every horse-shoer should make an 
effort to learn blacksmithing. He will be expected to 
know it, people don't know the difference ; besides this, 
it will, in smaller cities, be haid to succeed with horse- 
shoeing alone. On the other hand, every blacksmith 
should learn horse-shoeing, for the same reasons. 
Therefore, seven or even ten years is a short time to 
learn it in. But, who has patience and good sense 
enough to persevere for such a course, in our times, 
when everybody wants to get to the front at once? 
Let every young man remember that the reputation 
you get in the start will stick to you. Therefore be 
careful not to start before you know your business, 
and the years spent in learning it wilt not be lost, but 
a foundation for your success. Remember, that if a 
thing is not worth being well done it is not worth being 
done at all. It is better to be a first-class bootblack 
or chimney sweep, than be a third-class of anything 
else. 

Don't be satisfied by simply being able to do the 
work so as to pass, let it be first class. Thousands of 
mechanics are turning out work just as others are 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING 19 

doing it, but you should not be satisfied to do the 
work as others are doing it, but do it right. 



A MODERN GUILD 

The blacksmiths and horse-shoers have at last put 
the thinking cap on, for the purpose of bettering their 
condition. So far nothing has been accomplished, but 
I am sure it will, in the long run, if they only keep at 
it. We are now living in the license craze age. From 
the saloon keeper down to the street peddler, they all 
howl for license, and unreasonable as it is, thousands 
of sensible men will cling to it in hopes that it will 
help. 

We are, more or less, one-idea men, with fads and 
whims. Nations and organizations are just like indi- 
viduals, ready to fall into a craze and we see it often. 
It is natural when we consider that nations and organ- 
izations are simple one man repeated so many times. 

Simply look at the hero-worshiping craze went 
through at the close of the Spanish war. First, Lieu- 
tenant Hobson was the idol, and great was he, far off 
in Cuba. But, coming home, he made himself obnox- 
ious on a tour through the country, and the worshipers 
were ashamed of their idol, as well as of themselves. 
Admiral Dewey was the next hero to be idolized, and 
he, too, was found wanting. 

Physicians have their favorite prescriptions, min- 
isters their favorite sermons. Politicians have their 



20 MODERN BLACKSMITHING 

tariff and free trade whims, their gold or silver craze. 
Mechanics have their one ideal way of doing their 
work, I know horse-shoers that have such faith in 
bar shoes that they believe it will cure everything from 
contraction to heaves. Others have such a faith in 
toe weight that they will guarantee that in a horse 
shod this way the front quarters will run so fast that 
they must put wheels under the hind feet to enable 
them to keep up with the front feet ; and in a three- 
mile race the front quarters will reach the stables in 
time to feed on a peck of oats before the hind quarters 
catch up. 

In some States there is a union craze. All that 
these schemes will do is to prepare the legislatures for 
the legislation that will some day be asked of them. 
Unions have been organized and the objections are 
the same. I object to all these schemes because they 
fall short of their purpose. 

Two years ago the horse-shoers of Minnesota asked 
the legislature to give them a license law. I wrote to 
a prominent member of the house of representatives 
and asked him to put his influence against the meas- 
ure. He did so, with the result that the bill was 
killed so far as the counties and smaller towns were 
concerned. Such a law will only provide for an extra 
tax on the poor smiths and horse-shoers, and his 
chances of making a living will not be bettered, 
because no one will be shut out, no matter how 
incompetent. 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING 



21 



TAXATION WILL NEVER RAISE THE 
STANDARD OF A MECHANIC 



It deprives him of the means whereby to raise himself. Such a 

law will only create offices to grease the machinery 

for the political party in power. 

'HE only thing that will ever 
elevate the standard of work- 
manship is education, educa- 
^ tion and nothing but edu- 
cation. Give us a law that 
will provide for a certain 
degree of education before 
a boy is allowed to serve 
as an apprentice ; and that 
he will not be allowed to 
start out for himself until 
he has served the full term, both as an apprentice and 
journeyman, And if intemperate, no diploma shall be 
issued to him. I see now that I was right when I 
opposed this law. The horse-shoers of Minnesota are 
now kicking and cursing the examining board. The 
National Convention of horse-shoers which was held in 
Cincinnati passed resolutions which were ordered 
transmitted to the governor of Illinois, requesting that 
the board of examiners now authorized to grant 




22 MODERN BLACKSMITHING 

licenses to horse-shoers in that State, be changed, as 
"The board has failed to accomplish the purpose for 
which it was instituted — the elevating of the standard 
of workmanship of horse-shoers of that State. ' ' Unions 
are all right in every place where there is only one 
smith, let that smith unite with himself to charge a 
living price for his work and he is all right. Where 
there are more than one smith unions will only help 
the dishonest fellow. Such unions live but for a short 
time and then the smiths knife each other worse than 
ever. 

In hard times (and hard times are now like the 
poor, "always with us,") a lot of tinkers start in the 
shoeing and blacksmith business. If they could make 
a dollar a day in something else they would stay out, 
but this being impossible, they think it better to try at 
the anvil. For them to get anything to do without 
cutting prices is out of the question, and so the cutting 
business begins, and ends when the regular smith has 
come down to the tinker's price. To remedy this we 
must go to the root of the evil. First, political agita- 
tion against a system whereby labor is debased. 

This is a fact, in spite of all prosperity howling-. 
Whenever there is trouble between labor and capital 
we will always find the whole machinery of the gov- 
ernment ready to protect capital. The laboring men 
will not even be allowed to meet, but will be dispersed 
like so many dogs. They are the mob! But the 
capitalists, they are gentlemen! When the govern- 
ment wants a tailor for instructor in our Indian schools, 
or a blacksmith for the reservation, they get about 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING S3 

$600.00 per year. But, when a ward-heeler wants 
office he must have $5,000 per year. What induce- 
ment is it, under such conditions, for a young man to 
learn a trade? Laboring men, wake up! 

But, as this will bring us into politics I shall leave 
this side of the question, for it would do no good. 
Thomas Jefferson, in the Declaration of Independence 
said: "Mankind are more disposed to suffer, while 
the evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by 
abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed." 
The laboring people will, in my judgment, suffer quite 
a while yet. In the meantime let us build up a fra- 
ternity on the ruins of the ancient guilds. Between 
the twelfth and the fifteenth centuries mechanics of 
all kinds prospered as never before, nor have they 
done it since. The reason for this was not a high 
protective tariff, or anything in that line, but simply 
the fruit of the guilds and the privilege they enjoyed 
from the state. 

What we now need is a modern guild. I anticipate 
there would be some difficulty in securing the legis- 
lation necessary, but we will not ask more than the 
doctors now have. I cannot now go into detail ; that 
would take more room and time than I can spare in 
this book. 



24 MODERN BLACKSMITHING 




,NE thing is certain, we have a hard row 
to hoe, because, this is a government 
of injunctions, and any law on the 
statute book is in danger of being 
declared unconstitutional, according 
to the biddings of the money power, 
or the whim of the judges. One 
tyrant is bad, but many are worse. 

I am no prophet, but will judge the future from the 
past. History will repeat itself, and Christ's teachings 
will be found true: "A house divided against itself 
cannot stand." 

I will say so much, however, that no man should be 
allowed to start out for himself before he has served 
three years as an apprentice and two or three years as 
a journeyman. This should be proved by a certificate 
from the master for whom he has worked. This 
certificate to be sworn to by his master, one uninter- 
ested master and himself. No apprentice to be 
accepted without a certificate from the school superin- 
tendent that he has a certain knowledge in language 
and arithmetic and other branches as may be required. 
It shall not be enough to have worked a few days each 
year, but the whole time. With these papers he shall 
appear before three commissioners, elected by the 
fraternity and appointed by the governor of the State. 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING 25 

He shall pay not less than ten and not more than 
twenty-five dollars for his diploma. All complaint 
shall be submitted to these commissioners, and they 
shall have full power to act. If a practitioner acts 
unbecoming, runs down his competitor, charges prices 
below the price fixed by the fraternity, or defrauds 
his customers, such shall be reported to the commis- 
sioners, and, if they see fit, they can repeal or call in 
his diploma and he shall not be allowed to practice in 
the State. These are a few hints on the nature of the 
modern guild we ought to establish. The fraternity 
should have a journal edited by one editor on litera- 
ture and one on mechanics, the editor on mechanics 
to be a practical blacksmith with not less than fifteen 
years' experience. The editors are to be elected by 
the fraternity. This is all possible if we can get the 
legislation that the doctors have in many States. And 
why not? 

Mechanics of to-day have a vague and abstract idea 
of what is meant by journeyman and apprenticeship. 
In Europe there is yet a shadow left of the guilds 
where these were in existence. 

When I learned my trade I worked some time with 
my father in Sweden, then I went over to Norway and 
worked as an apprentice in Mathison & Johnson's 
machine, file and lock factory of Christiania. I was 
requested to sign a contract for four years. In this 
contract was set forth the wages I was to receive, and 
what I was to learn each year. Everything was 
specified so that there would be no room for misunder- 
standing. The first two weeks I worked, they simply 



26 MODERN BLACKSMITHING 

drilled me. I was given a good file and a piece of 
iron, this iron I filed square, round, triangle, hexagon 
and octagon I wore out files and pieces of iron one 
after another, the master giving instructions how to 
stand, hold the file, about the pressure and strokes of 
same, etc. The same careful instructions were given 
in blacksmi thing. The apprentice was given some 
work, and he had to forge it out himself, no matter 
what time it took, nor did it make any difference if the 
job, when done, was of any use, the apprentice was 
simply practicing and accustoming himself to the use 
of tools. Thus the elementary rules were learned in a 
few weeks, and the apprentice made capable of doing 
useful service that would repay for the time lost in the 
start. 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING 2^ 




LITERATURE 

' A VING thoroughly learned the trade, 
it is important to keep posted 
in this matter by reading books 
and trade journals. As far as 
books are concerned, we have a 
few treating on horse-shoeing, 
with both good and bad ideas. 
As to blacksmithing, this book, 
' Modern Blacksmithing," is the first in that line, 
written by a practical blacksmith and horse-shoer. 

Oar trade journals must be read with discrimination. 
They are mostly edited by men having no practical 
experience in the trade, and are therefore not respon- 
sible for the articles these papers contain. Many 
articles are entirely misleading. Blacksmiths having 
more experience with the pen than the hammer, and 
anxious to have their names appear in print, write for 
these journals. 

Prize articles are also doing more harm than good, 
the judges giving the prizes to men with ideas like 
their own, not being broad-minded enough to consider 
anything they don't practice themselves, and the result 
is a premium on old and foolish ideas. 

But we should not stop at this. We should read 
much. Anything, except bloody novels, will help to 



28 MODERN BLACKSMITHING 

elevate the man. No smith should think it idle to read 
and study. "Every kind of knowledge," observes a 
writer, "comes into play some time or other, not only 
systematic study, but fragmentary, even the odds and 
ends, the merest rag-tags of information." Some 
fact, or experience, and sometimes an anecdote, recut 
to the mind, by the power of association, just in the 
right time and place. A carpenter was observed to 
be very particular and painstaking in repairing an old 
chair of a magistrate, and when asked why, said: "I 
want this chair to be easy for me to sit in some time." 
He lived long enough to sit in it. 

Hugh Miller found time while pursuing the trade of 
a stone mason, not only to read, but to write, cultivat- 
ing his style till he became one of the most facile and 
brilliant authors of the day. Elihu Burritt acquired a 
mastery of eighteen languages and twenty-two dia- 
lects, not by rare genius, which he disclaimed, but by 
improving the bits and fragments of time which he 
had to spare from his occupation as a blacksmith. 

Let it be a practice or a habit, if you will, to buy at 
least one book every year, and to read the same, once, 
twice, thrice, or until its contents are indelibly im- 
pressed upon your mind. It will come back to your 
mind and be useful when you expect it the least. 



^'A mechanic is known by the tools he .."es," 




CHAPTER II 

O other mechanic will try to turn out v^tich a 
variety of work with so few tools as the 
blacksmith, even when the smith has all 
the tools to be had, he has few in propor- 
tion to the work. There are a class of smiths 
who will be content with almost nothing-. These men 
can tell all about the different kinds of tobacco; they 
can tell one kind of beer from another in the first sip, 
and the smell of the whisky bottle is enough for them 
to decide the character of the contents, but when it 
comes to tools which belong to their trade, they are 
not in it. It ought to be a practice with every smith 
to add some new tool every year. But if they are 
approached on the subject they will generally say, 
"Oh, I can get along without that." With them it is 
not a question of what they need, but what they can 
get along without. 

Some smiths have the Chinaman's nature (stubborn 
conservatism) to the extent that they will have nothing 
new, no matter how superior to their old and inferior 
tools ; what they have been used to is the best. 

When the hoof shears were a new thing I ordered a 
pair and handed them to my horse-shoer, he tried them 
for a few minutes and then threw them on the floor 
and said, "Yankee humbug." I picked them up and 

29 



30 MODERN BLACKSMITHING 

tried them myself, and it took a few days before I got 
used to them, but then I found that they were a great 
improvement over the toe knife. I told my horse- 
shoer to use them and after a while he could not get 
along without them, but would yet have used his toe 
knife if it had not been for the fact that he was com-, 
pelled to use them. If it was not for the conservatism 
by which we are all infected more or less, we would 
be far more advanced in everything. 

The mechanic that has poor tools will in every case 
be left behind in competition with the man with good 
tools in proper shape. There are smiths who will take 
in all kinds of shows and entertainments within fifty 
miles, but when it comes to tools, oh, how stingy and 
saving they are. There is no investment which will 
bring such a good return as first-class tools do to a 
mechanic. The old maxim, "A mechanic is known 
by the tools he uses," is true. Many of the tools used 
in the shop can be made by the smith. If less time is 
spent in the stores and saloon there will be more time 
for making tools. 

I shall, in this chapter, give a few pointers how to 
make some of the tools used. I will not spend any 
time in explanation about the more intricate tools like 
drill presses and tools of that kind, because no smith 
has experience or facilities to make tools of this char- 
acter that will be worth anything. T shall simply give 
a few hints on the most common tools used, with illus- 
trations that will be a help to new beginners. Before 
we go any further let me remind you of the golden 
rule of the mechanic, "A place for everything and 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING 31 

everything in its place." Some shops look like a 
scrajj iron shed, the tools strewn all over, and one- 
tentn of the time is spent in hunting for them. I shall 
first lay a few words about the shop and give a plan. 
This plan is not meant to be followed minutely, but 
is sii ply a hint in that direction. 



THE SHOP 

In building a shop care should be taken in making it 
convenient and healthy. Most of the shops are built 
with a Ligh floor. This is very inconvenient when 
rjachinerf of any kind is taken in for repairs, as well 
a3 in taking in a team for shoeing. Around the forge 
there should be a gravel floor. A plank floor is a 
great nuiLance around the anvil. Every piece cut off 
hot is to b^ hunted up and picked up or it will set fire 
to it. I know there will be some objection to this kind 
of floor but if you once learn how to keep it you will 
change your mind. To make this floor take sand and 
clay with fine gravel, mix with coal dust and place a 
layer where wanted about four inches thick. This 
floor, when a little old, will be as hard as iron, pro- 
vided you sprinkle it every night with water. The 
dust and soot from the shop will, in time, settle in with 
it and it will be smooth and hard. It will not catch 
fire; no cracks for small tools or bolts to fall through; 
it will not crack like cement or brick floors. If your 
shop is large then make a platform at each end, and a 
gravel floor in the center, or at one side, as in figure 



3' 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING 



I. This floor is cool in summer and warm in winter, 
as there can be no draft. The shop should have plenty 
of light, skylights if possible. The soot and dust will, 
in a short time, make the lightest shop dark. The 
shop should be whitewashed once a year. Have 



IV 



w 



P2i-f 



o 
1) 



'W 




Pl^nk F/oor 



Fig. I. 



W 



W 



W 



plenty of ventilation. Make it one story only if con- 
venient to do so, as an upper story in a blacksmith 
shop is of very little use. The shop is the place where 
the smith spends most of his time and he should take 
just as much care in building it, as a sensible house- 
keeper does in the construction of her kitchen. 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING 33 

THE FORGE 

The forge can be made either single or double, 
square or round. The square is the best as it can be 
placed up against the wall, and you will then have 
more room in front of it. The round forge will take 
more room, if it is placed in the center of the floor 
there will be no room of any amount on any side and 
when the doors are open the wind will blow the fire, 
cinders and smoke into the face of the smith. This is 
very uncomfortable. The smokestack, if hung over 
the fire will sometimes be in the way. Of course the 
hood can be made in halves and one half swung to the 
side, but it will sometimes be in the way anyhow, and 
it seldom has any suction to carry away the smoke and 
cinders. 

THE ANVIL 



\ 
The anvil should not be too close to the forge, as is 

often the case in small country shops. Make it six 

feet from center of fire to center of anvil. The aiivil 



34 MODERN BLACKSMITHING 

should not be placed on a butcher block with the tools 
on, but on a timber the same size as the foot of the 
anvil. Set the timber down in the ground at least 
three feet. For heavy work the anvil should stand low 
in order to be a,ble to come down on it with both ham- 
mer and sledge with force. When the smith has his 
hands closed the knuckles of his fingers should touch 
the face of the anvil and it will be the right height for 
all-around blacksmithing. . 



COAL BOX 

Close to the forge under the water tank or barrel 
should be a coal box i8 x 24 x i6 inches, this box to be 
dug down in the ground and so placed that one end 
will protrude from under the barrel or tank far enough 
to let a shovel in. This opening can be closed with a 
lid if the tools are liable to fall into it. In this box 
keep the coal wet. In figure i a plan is given from 
which you can get an idea of a shop and how to place 
the tools and different articles needed. 



TOOL TABLES 

On the right hand of the anvil should be a tool bench 
or tool table 20x20,. a little lower than the anvil. 
Outside, on three sides and level with the table, make 
a railing of i ^ inch iron, about i j^ inch space between 
the table and railing, this makes a handy place for 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING 35 

tools and near by. Many blacksmiths have no other 
place than the floor for their tools, but there is no 
more sense in that than it would be for a carpenter to 
throw his tools down on the floor all around him. 
There ought to be "a place for every tool and every 
\ool in its place." 




TOOL TABLE. 

THE HAMMER 

When a lawyer or a minister makes his maiden 
speech he will always be in a great hurry on account 
of his excitement. The sentences are cut shorter, 
broken, and the words are sometimes only half pro- 
nounced. After a few years' practice he will be more 



36 MODERN BLACKSMITHING 

self-possessed and the speech will be changed from 
unintelligible phrases to logical oratory. When the 
carpenter's apprentice first begins to use the saw, he 
will act the same way — be in a great hurry — he will 
run the saw at the speed of a scroll saw, but only a 
few inches of stroke; after some instructions and a 
few year's practice the saw will be run up and down 
steady and with strokes the whole length of the blade. 
When the blacksmith's apprentice begins to use the 
hammer he acts very much the same way. He will 
press his elbows against his ribs ; lift the hammer only 
a few inches from the anvil and peck away at the 
speed of a trip hammer. This will, in most cases, be 
different in a few years. He will drop the bundle — 
that is, his elbows will part company with his ribs, the 
hammer will look over his head, there will be full 
strokes and regular time, every blow as good as a 
dozen of his first ones. Some smiths have the foolish 
habit of beating on the anvil empty with the hammer, 
they will strike a few blows on the iron, then a couple 
of blind beats on the anvil, and so on. This habit has 
been imported from Europe, free of duty, and that 
must be the reason why so many blacksmiths enjoy 
this luxury. 

THE SLEDGE 

In Europe great importance is laid upon the position 
taken by the apprentice and the manner he holds the 
sledge. The sledge is held so that the end of it will 
be under his right armpit, when the right hand is next 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING 37 

to the sledge, and under his left arm when the left 
hand is nearer the sledge. In this unnatural position 
it is next to impossible to strike hard and do it for any 
time. This is another article imported free of duty, 
but few Americans have been foolish enough to use 
it. In this country the apprentice will be taught to 
use the tools in a proper way. 

The end of the sledge-handle will be to one side ; at 
the left, if the left hand is at the end of the handle, 
and at the right if the right hand is at the end of the 
handle ; and be down between his feet when the 
handle's end must be low. The apprentice should 
stand directly in front of the anvil. 

In swinging, the sledge should describe a circle 
from the anvil close down to the helper's feet and up 
over his head and down to the anvil ; this is a perpen- 
dicular circle blow. Be sure not to give it a horizon- 
tal start; that is, with one hand close to the sledge the 
apprentice starts out either in the direction of the 
horn or the butt end of the anvil, and then up while 
both hands should clasp the extreme end of the handle 
close together the sledge should be dropped down to 
the feet then up. The hold taken should not be 
changed, but the hands held in the same place. (See 
figure 4.) 

For ordinary use a nine-pound sledge is heavy 
enough, a large sledge will give a bump, while a small 
one will give a quick good blow, it is only occasion- 
ally and for special purposes a large sledge is needed, 
even an eight-pound sledge will do. Try it, and you 
will be surprised how nice it works. 



38 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING 



With these preliminary remarks we shall now begin 
to make a few tools. We will begin with the black- 
smith's tongs. I shall only give an idea how to forge 
the jaws, and every man that needs to make them has 




Fig. 4. 



seen enough of this simple tool to know what kind is 
needed, and what he has not seen will suggest itself 
to every sensible smith. 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING 
BLACKSMITH'S TONGS 



39 



Take a piece of one-inch square Swede iron, hold 
the iron diagonally over the anvil, with your left hand 
a little toward the horn, the end of the iron to reach 
out over the outside edge of the anvil. Now strike so 
that the sledge and hammer will hit half face over the 
anvil and the other half of the sledge and hammer out- 



side of the anvil. Hammer it down to about three- 
eighths of an inch thick. Now pull the iron towards 
you straight across the anvil, give it one half turn 
toward yourself so that this side which was up, now 
will be towards yourself; the end that first was outside 
the anvil now to rest over the inner edge of the anvil, 
push the jaw up against the anvil until it rests against 
the shoulder made in the first move. Now hammer 
this down until it is the thickness of the jaw that is 
desired. Next, turn it over, with the bottom side up 
or the side that was down, up ; push it out over the 



40 MODERN BLACKSMITHING 

outside edge of the anvil again so far that the shoulder 
or set down you now have up, will be about an inch out- 
side and over the edge of the anvil, now give a few 
blows to finish the jaw, then finish the shanks and weld 
in half inch round iron to the length desired. The 
jaws should be grooved with a fuller, if you have none 
of the size required take a piece of round iron and ham- 
mer it down in the jaws to make the groove. Tongs 
grooved this way will grip better. Next, punch a hole 
in one jaw, place it over the other in the position 
wanted when finished, then mark the hole in the other 
jaw, and when punched rivet them together, the jaws 
to be cold and the rivet hot. The following story will 
suggest to you how to finish it. An apprentice once 
made a pair of tongs when his master was out, and 
when he had them riveted together could not move the 
jaws. As he did not know how to make them work 
he laid them away under the bellows. At the supper 
table the apprentice told his master the following 
story : An apprentice once made a pair of tongs and 
when he had them riveted together he could not move 
the jaws, and as he did not know what to do he simply 
threw them away, thinking he must have made a 
mistake somehow. "What a fool," said the master, 
"Why didn't he heat them." At the next oppor- 
tunity the apprentice put his tongs in the fire and 
when hot they could be worked very easily. 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING 41 

HOW TO MAKE A HAMMER 

Take a piece of tool steel i % inches square, neat it 
red hot. Now remember here it is that the trouble 
begins in handling tool steel. If, in the process, you 
ever get it more than red hot, it is spoiled, and no 
receipt, or handling or hammering will ever make it 
good again. The best thing in such a case is to cut 
off the burnt part in spite of all proposed cures. This 
must be remembered whenever you heat tool or spring 
steel. If the burnt part cannot be cut off, heat it to a 
low heat, cool it in lukewarm water half a dozen 
times, this will improve it some, if you can hammer it 
some do so. Now punch a hole about two inches from 
the end with a punch that will make a hole 1^ x ^8- 
If the punch sticks in the hole, cool it off and put a 
little coal in the hole that will prevent the punch from 
sticking. This is a good thing to do whenever a deep 
hole is to be punched. Be sure that the hole is made 
true. Next, have a punch the exact size of the hole 
wanted when finished, drive it in and hammer the eye 
out until it has the thickness of about Y% of an inch on 
each side and has a circle form like No. 2, Figure 5. 

In order to do this you may have to heat the eye 
many times, and upset over it with the punch in the 
eye. This done put in the bottom fuller and with the 
top fuller groove it down on each side of the eye, like 
the cut referred to. Now dress down the face then 
the peen-end. When finished harden it in this way: 
Heat the face-end first to a low red heat, dip in water 
about an inch and a half, brighten the face and watch 



42 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING 



for the color. When it begins to turn blue cool off 
but don't harden the eye. Wind a wet rag around the 
face end and heat the peen-end, temper the same way. 
With a piece of iron in the eye, both ends can be 
hardened at the same time, but this is more difficult, 
and I would not recommend it. 



Fig. 5. 

For ordinary blacksmithing a flat peen hammer is 
the thing, but I have seen good blacksmiths hang on 
to the machinist's hammer as the only thing. See No. 
I, Figure 5. This hammer is more ornamental than 
useful in a blacksmith shop. The hammer should be 
of different sizes for different work, light for light 
work, and for drawing out plowshares alone the ham- 
mer should be heavy. 

For an ordinary smith a hammer of two up to two 
and one-half pounds is right. Riveting hammers 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING 43 

should be only one pound and less. No smith should 
ever use a hammer like No. 3, in Figure 5. This 
hammer I have not yet been able to find out what it' is 
good for. Too short, too chimsy, too much friction in 
the air. I have christened it, and if you want my 
name for it call it Cain's hammer. It must surely 
look like the hammer used by him, if he had any. 



HOW TO MAKE CHISELS 

A chisel for hot cutting, see Figure 5, No. 4. This 
chisel is made oi 1% square tool steel. Punch a hole 
I /^ X ^ X j^ about three inches from the end, the eye 
should be narrow in order to leave material enough on 
the sides to give it strength. When eye is finished, 
forge down below it, not on the head-end, with top 
and bottom fullers, like cut. This gives the chisel a 
better shape. Now dress down the edge, then heat 
to a low cherry red, and harden, brighten it and when 
the color is brown cool off. 



COLD CHISELS 

Use same sized steel as above referred to, make it 
like No. 5, Figure 5. To distinguish it from the hot 
cutting chisel, and to give it more strength, in harden- 
ing this chisel, draw the temper until it is blue. This 
is the right temper for all kinds of cold chisels. 



44 MODERN BLACKSMITHING 

SET HAMMER 

One might think that anybody knows how to make 
a set hammer, if every smith knows it, I don't know, 
but I do know that there are thousands of smiths who 
have never had a set hammer nor know its use. To 
make one : Take a piece of tool steel 1 3^ x i ^ incheS, 
punch a hole about two inches from the end, the hole 
to be i}( K 3/8. Now cut off enough for head. Make 
the face perfectly square and level, with sharp corners, 
harden and cool off when the temper turns from brown 
to blue. This is a very important little tool and for 
cutting steel it is a good deal better than the chisel. 
Plow steel of every kind is easier cut with this hammer 
than any other way. In cutting with the set hammer 
hold the steel so that your inner side of the set ham- 
mer will be over the outside edge of the anvil. Let 
the helper strike on the outside corner of the set ham- 
mer and it will cut easy. The steel to be cut should 
be just a little hot, not enough to be noticed. If the 
steel is red hot the set hammer cannot cut it. The 
heat must be what is called blue heat. I would not be 
without the set hammer for money, and still I often 
meet smiths who have never seen this use made of the 
set hammer. Plow points, corn shovels, and seeder 
shovels are quicker cut with this tool than any other 
way, with the exception of shears. 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING 45 

TWIST DRILLS 

Twist drills are not easy to make by hand, as they 
should be turned to be true, but a twist drill can be 
made this way. Take a piece of tool steel roimd and 
the size of the chuck hole in your drill press. Flatten 
it down to the size wanted, heat, put the shank in the 
vise, take with the tongs over the end and give one 
turn to the whole length, turn to the left. When 
finished be sure that it is not thicker up than it is at 
point, and straight. Now harden, heat to a low cherry 
red, cool off in luke-warm water — salt water, if 
you have it — brighten it and hold over a hot bar of 
iron to draw temper, cool off when brown, the whole 
length of the twist should be tempered. 

Another way to make a drill is to just flatten the 
steel and shape to a diamond point and bend the 
shares forward. This is a simple but good idea and 
such drills cut easy. In cooling for hardening turn 
the drill in the water so that the edge or shares are 
cooled in proportion to point, or the shares will be 
too soft and the point of such a drill too hard. Our 
trade journals, in giving receipts for hardening drills, 
often get watch-makers receipts. This is misleading: 
watch-makers heat their drills to a white heat. Now, 
remember, as I have already said, when your drill or 
tool of this kind is heated to this heat the best thing 
to do is to cut that part off. It is different with watch- 
makers, they do not look for strength, but hardness. 
They run their drills with a high speed, cut chips that 
cannot be discerned with the naked eye, and must 



46 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING 



have a drill that is hard like a diamond. For drilling 
iron or steel the drill does not need to be so very hard, 
biat tough rather, because of the slow speed and thick 
chips. Few smiths have been able to master the sim- 
plest tempering, and they think if they could get a 
complicated receipt they would be all right. "We are 
all more or less built that way. Anything we do not 



Fig. 6. 

understand we admire. Simple soft water and the 
right heat is, in most cases, the only thing needed for 
hardening. I had occasion to consult a doctor once 
who was noted for his simple remedies. A lady got 
some medicine and she wanted to know what it was so 
she could get it when the doctor was not at home, but 
he refused to reveal it to her. When the lady had left 
the doctor told me the reason why. "This lady," said 
the doctor, "does not believe in simple remedies which 
she knows, but believes in those remedies she knows 
nothing about." 1 think it is better for us to try to 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING 47 

understand things and not believe much in them 
before we understand them. 



S WRENCH 

See Figure 6, No. 3. This wrench is for ^ nut on 
one end and ^ on the other, just the kind for plow 
work. To make one, take a piece of tool steel i}^ x ^, 
start as you see in No. 4, Figure 6. Set the jaws down 
with the fullers, punch a round hole as in end No. 4, 
cut out from hole and finish the jaws to make the right 
length, now bend it in S shape and finish. This makes 
the best wrench. Do not heat over a red heat. 



ROCK DRILLS 

Few blacksmiths know how to make a rock drill. 
Take a piece of round or octagon steel, the desired 
length and thickness, shape it, but it must be remem- 
bered that if during the process you ever get it over a 
red heat there is no use to proceed, but just cut off 
that much and start again, no hardening will prevail 
if it is burnt. The trouble begins when you put the 
steel into the fire, and you must watch until you have 
it finished. When ready to harden heat it to a cherry 
red heat, cool in water not too cold, brighten and 
watch for temper. When it is yellow, cool it off, but 
not entirely, take it out of the water before it is quite 



48 MODERN BLACKSMITHING 

cold and let it cool slowly, this will make the drill both 
hard and tough. By this simple process I have been 
able to dress drills and get such a good temper than 
only two per cent would break. Another way to 
harden is to heat to a very low heat and cool it off 
entirely at once. A third way is to temper as first 
stated and when yellow set the drill in water only one 
half an inch deep and let it cool. By this process a' 
good per cent will break just at the water line. 



"Be sure yoti are right then go ahead.'''' — Davy Crocket. 



CHAPTER II! 




HOW TO STRIKE AND TURN THE IRON— 
RULES FOR SMITH AND HELPER 

|HE smith should never turn the iron 
on the helper's blow, he should turn 
on his own blow, that is, never turn 
the iron so that the helper's blow will 
hit it first because he is not prepared 
for it and cannot strike with confi- 
dence, but the smith will not be 
bothered by turning the iron for himself as he knows 
when he turns and is prepared for it. The smith 
should strike the first blow in starting, or signal the 
helper where to strike, in case the smith cannot strike 
the first blow. The smith calls the helper by three 
blows on the anvil with his hammer, and when the 
smith wants the helper to cease striking he taps with 
the hammer twice on the anvil. The helper should 
strike the blow he has started when the smith signals 
him to stop. The helper should watch the time of the 
smith's hammer; if fast, keep time with it, if slow, 
keep time with it. The helper should strike where 
the smith strikes or over the center of the anvil. The 
helper should always lift the sledge high, in order to 
give the smith a chance to get in with the hammer. 

49 



5° 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING 
THE FIRE 



It is proper before we go any farther to say a few 
words about the fire. 

An old foreman in the blacksmith department of a 
factory told me once in a conversation we had about 




"CORRECT position" AT THE ANVIL 

the fire, that he had come to the conclusion that very 
few blacksmiths have learned how to make a good 
fire. It takes years of study and practice before the 
eye is able to discern a good fire from a bad one. A 
good fire must be a clear fire, the flame must be con- 
centrated and of a white color. Even the nose must 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING 51 

serve to decide a bad fire from a good one. A strong 
sulphur smell indicates a poor fire for welding. In 
order to get a good fire there must be, first, good coal ; 
second, plenty of it. It is no use to pile a lot of coal 
on an old fire, full of cinders and slag. The fire-pot 
must be clean. Many blacksmiths are too saving 
about the coal. They take a shovel of coal, drop it on 
the forge in the vicinity of the fire and sprinkle a 
handful of it in the fire once in a while. In such a 
case it is impossible to do good work and turn it out 
quick. Have a scoop shovel and put on one or two 
shovels at a time, the coal should be wet. Then pack 
it in the fire as hard together as you can. Sprinkle 
the fire with water when it begins to spread. In this 
way you get a hard fire. The flames are concentrated 
and give great heat. Saving coal is just like saving 
feed to a horse, or grub to your apprentice. Neither 
will give you a good day's work unless he has all he 
wants to eat. The fire, of course, should be in pro- 
portion to the work, but in every case should the fire 
be large enough to raise it up from the tuyer iron as 
much as possible. In a small fire the blast strikes 
directly on the iron and it begins to scale off; in a 
good fire these scales melt and make it sticky, while 
in a low and poor fire the scales blacken and fall off. 
This never happens if the fire is full of good coal and 
high up from the tuyer iron. 

Good strong blast is also necessary for heavy work. 
There is an old whim about the fire that everybody, 
farmers and others, as well as blacksmiths, are infected 
with, and that is, if a piece of brass is put in the fire it 



52 MODERN BLACKSMITHING 

renders the fire useless to weld with. Now, while it is 
a fact that brass is not conducive to welding it takes a 
good deal of it before the fire is made useless. One 
smith will not dare to heat a galvanized pipe in his 
fire, for fear it will spoil it, while another smith will 
weld a piece of iron or steel to such a pipe without 
difficulty. Don't swear and curse if the fire is not 
what you expect it to be, but simply make it right. 
Some smiths have the habit of continually poking in 
the fire, if they weld a piece of iron they never give it 
rest enough to get hot, but turn it over from one side 
to another and try to fish up all the cinders and dust 
to be found in the fire. This is a bad habit. Yellow 
colored fire is a sign of sulphur in the fire and makes a 
poor fire for welding. Dead coal makes a poor fire. 



TUYER IRON 

One of the chief reasons for a poor fire is a poor 
blast. No patent tuyer will give blast enough unless 
you run it by steam and have a fan blower. Ninety 
per cent of the blast is lost in transmission through 
patent tuyers. The only way to get a good blast is to 
have a direct tuyer, and one with a water space in. 

To make a direct tuyer take a pipe 1 3^ x 12 inches 
long, weld around one end of this pipe an iron 3^ to 
make it thick on the end that is in the fire, flare out 
the other end for the wind pipe to go in and place it 
norzontal in (.he fire and fill up around it with fireproof 
clay. This gives the best fire. The only objection to 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING 53 

this tuyer is that where soft coal is used, as is mostly 
the case in country shops, it gets hot and clogs up, 
but with a strong blast and good hard coal it never 
gets hot, provided the fire is deep enough. From five 
to eight inches is the right distance from the tuyer to 
the face of the fire. In factories this kind of tuyer is 
used, and I have seen them used for ten years, and 




WATER TUYER 



never found 1hem to clog once. The tuyer was just as 
good after ten years use as it was when put in. 

To make a water tuyer take a pipe i^^^ x 12, weld a 
flange on each end for water space, now weld another 
pipe over this, and bore holes for % inch pipes in the 
end, where the blast goes in. One hole on the lower 
or bottom side should be for the cold water to go in 
through, and one hole on the upper side for the hot 
water to go out through. These pipes to connect with 
a little water tank for this purpose. The pipes should 



54 MODERN BLACKSMITHING 

be watched so that they will not be allowed to freeze 
or clog, as an explosion might follow. These tuyers 
never clog. I now use one that I have made as above 
described. The dealers now have them to sell. Any 
smith can get them as they are hard to make by the 
average smith. 



BLOWERS 

I have tried many kinds of blowers and I shall give 
my brother smiths the advantage of my experience. 



Portable forges run with fan blowers are fair blow- 
ers if you are strong enough to pump away at high 
speed, but it takes a horse to do that, and as soon as 
you drop the lever the blast ceases. Root's blower 
works easier, but the objection is the same, as soon as 
you drop the crank the blast stops. Besides this 
trouble, this blower is often in the way. I have never 
found anything to beat the bellows yet, if you only 
know how to use them. 

Never take a set of bellows less than 48 extra long. 
Cut the snout off so that it will give a hole ijf^, and 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING 55 

with a water tuyer this blower cannot be beaten, 
except by a fan blower run by steam. The bellows 
should be hung over head to be out of the way. When 
these bellows are full of wind they will blow long 
enough after you have dropped the lever to do quite a 
good many things around the forge, and to handle the 
iron in the fire with both hands as is often necessary. 



WELDING IRON 

Welding iron is easy and no other welding compound 
is needed than sand, unless it is a case when the iron 
is liable to burn or scale off, borax will prevent this. 
There are three kinds of welds, butt, lap and split. 
The butt weld is most used in welding iron. The ends 
should be rounded off a little so that the center will 
weld first. Weld the ends this way either in the fire 
or on the anvil, butting the ends while you strike over 
and dress down the weld. In welding lap welds upset 
the ends and make them a good deal heavier than the 
size of the iron is ; then lap the ends with a short lap. 
New beginners will always make a long lap. This is 
wrong, for if the lap is long it will reach beyond the 
upset part and the ends cannot then be welded down, 
without you make it weak. If soft steel is welded cut 
a short cut with the chisel in the center of the lap, as 
shown in Figure 6, No. i. This cut will hook and 
prevent the ends from slipping; if properly prepared 
this weld will not show at all when done. 



56 MODERN BLACKSMITHING 

SPLIT WELDS 

Split weld is preferable when steel is to be welded, 
especially tool steel of a heavy nature, like drill bits 
for well drillers. 

If the steel is welded to iron, split the iron and draw 
out the ends as thin as possible and make it the shape 
shown in Figure 6, No. 2. Taper the steel to fill the 
split made in the iron, when it fits perfectly cut beard 
in it to catch in the lips of the iron when fitted in. 
See Figure 6, No. 2. When finished heat the split end 
and cool off the tapered end. Place the tapered end 
snug up in the split and hammer it together with a 
heavy sledge. If there is any crack or opening at the 
end of the tapered end, plug it up with iron plugs, if 
this is not done, these holes will be almost as they are, 
because it is hard to weld a heavy shaft or drill, or 
rather, it is hard to hammer them together so the 
holes will close in. Now heat, but if you have tool 
steel go slow, or your steel will burn before the iron is 
hot enough. Weld the lips while the rod or drill is in 
the fire. For this purpose use a hammer with an iron 
handle in. When the lips are welded all around take 
it out and let two good helpers come down on it with 
all their might. When welded smooth it up with the 
hammer or flat hammer. 

WELDING STEEL 

Welding steel is quite a trick, especially tool or 
spring steel. The most important part to remember 
is, to have a good clean fire, and not to over heat the 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING 57 

Steel. To a good smith no other compound is needed 
than borax, but if this is not sufficient, take some 
borings from your drill, especially fine steel borings, 
and cover the weld with this and borax, and if a smith 
cannot weld with this compound there is no use for 
him to try. Most of the welding compounds are 
inferior to this, but some smiths would rather believe 
in something they don't know anything about; another 
will not believe in anything he can get for nothing. 



BANDS OR HOOPS 

When a round object is to be ironed or a hoop put 
on to anything round, measure, that is, take the diam- 
eter then multiply by three, add three times the 
thickness of the iron (not the width), add to this one 
time the thickness of the hoop for the weld and you 
have the exact length of the iron needed; in other 
words, three times the diameter, four times the thick- 
ness of the band. This is a simple rule, but I know a 
good many old smiths who never knew it. 



SEEDER SHOVELS 

To weld seeder shovels is no easy job. Prepare the 
shovel; shape almost to it proper shape, draw out the 
shanks, weld the points first, heat shovel and shank 
slow, then fit them together so that no cinders can get 



58 MODERN BLACKSMITHING 

in between. Now remember, if your fire is ^ot at 
least five inches up from the tuyer iron, and clear, it 
is no use to try. Hold your shovel in the fire, shank 
down. Heat slow, use borax freely and apply it on 
the face side of the shovel to prevent it from burning. 
When ready, weld it over the mandrill and the shovel 
will have the right shape. If soft center, harden like 
a plow lay. 



DRILLING IRON 

Every smith knows how to drill, sometimes it gives 
even an old smith trouble. The drill must be true, 
the center to be right, if one side of the drill is wider 
than the other or the drill not in proper shape the hole 
will not be true. For centuries oil has been used for 
drilling and millions of dollars have been spent in 
vain. It is a wonder how people will learn to use the 
wrong thing. I don't think that I have ever met a 
man yet who did not know that oil was used in drill- 
ing. In drilling hard steel, tuipentine or kerosene is 
used as oil will then prevent cutting entirely. Nothing 
is better than water, but turpentine or kerosene is not 
as bad as oil; if you think water is too cheap use tur- 
pentine or kerosene. I had occasion once to do a little 
work for a man eighty years old, and when I drilled a 
hole, used water. The old man asked if water was as 
good as oil, and when informed that it was better, said: 
"I used to be quite a blacksmith myself, I am now 
eighty years old, too old to do anything, but I am not 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING 59 

too old to learn. " It ought to suggest itself to every 
smith that while oil is used in boxes to prevent cut- 
ting, it v^ill also prevent cutting in drilling. 



HOW TO DRILL CHILLED IRON 

First prepare a drill which is thicker at the point 
than usual, and oval in" form, then harden it as fol- 
lows: heat to a low cherry red heat and cool in the 
following hardening compound: two quarts soft water, 
one-half ounce sal-ammoniac, salt, three ounces. Don't 
draw the temper, for if you have the right heat you 
will get the right temper. Now drill and use water, 
not oil. Feed carefully but so the drill will cut right 
along. If you have no chance to get the compound, 
harden in water but draw no temper, let it be as hard 
as it will. 

If the iron is too hard to be drilled and you can heat 
the same do so, heat to a low red heat and place a 
piece of brimstone just where the hole is to be; this 
will soften the iron through, so the hole can be drilled. 
Let it cool slowly. 



STANDING COULTERS 

Standing coulters are made of different materials 
and of different shapes. Take a piece of iron 2}{ x }^, 
twenty-eight inches long. Cut off the end after you 



6o MODERN BLACKSMITHING 

have thinned it out about 5 inches from the end, cut 
diagonally Now weld the cut-off piece to the main 
shank. The cut-off piece to be laid on the outside and 
welded, bend the iron as soon as it is welded so that it 
has the shape of the coulter, draw out a good point 
and sharpen the iron just the same as if it was a fin- 
ished coulter. This done, cut off a piece of steel, an 
old plow lay that is not too much worn will do, cut^ 




STANDING COULTER 



the shape of the coulter you have now in the iron, and 
let the steel be half an inch wider than the iron, but 
on the point let it be as long as it will, because the 
point ought to be quite long, say about nine inches. 
Next draw the steel out thin on the upper end, heat 
the iron red hot, place it on the anvil outside up, put 
a pinch of borax on it at the heel, then a pinch of steel 
borings, place the steel on top of this and keep in posi- 
tion with a pair of tongs ; now hold it on the fire heel 
down, and heat slow. When it is hot let the helper 
strike a pressing blow or two on it and it will stick 
until you have taken the next weld. Put borings and 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING 6x 

borax between steel and iron for each weld. When 
finished, the angle should be that of the square; that 
is, when you place the coulter in the square the shank 
shoulcf" follow one end of the square and the foot of 
the coulter the other. The edge of the outside side 
should follow the square from the point up. When it 
does it looks like a hummock in the coulter but it is 
not. Old breakers will be particular about this as it 
will cut a clean furrow if it is made in this way and it 
will work easier. If the edge stands under the square 
the coulter will wedge the plow out of land and make a 
poor furrow. Next finish the chisel point, soft or hard 
steel as you please; weld it to the coulter on the 
inside, that is, the side next to the furrow. 

Last punch or drill the hole in the heel. The coulter 
should not be hardened except a little on and along 
the point. There is no need of a double chisel point, 
such a point will be too clumsy and run heavy. I have 
received a premium on a coulter made in this shape. 

MILL PICKS 

Mill picks are very easily dressed and hardened, the 
whole trick in this case, as in many others, lies in the 
right heat of the steel. Be careful not to heat to a 
higher than a red heat. Dress the pick and temper 
with a low heat, when the color is dark yellov/ the 
temper is right, if the steel is of the right kind. No 
other hardening compound is necessary than wdler. 
After a little experience any smith can do this wcris 
first class. 



62 MODERN BLACKSMITHING 

A smith once wanted to buy my receipt for tem-per- 
ing. He believed I had a wonderful prescription, or 
I could not succeed as I did. I told him I used only 
water, but he insisted that I was selfish and wouid not 
reveal it to him. 

If tools and receipts would do the work there would 
be no need of experienced mechanics. Tools and 
receipts are both necessary, but it must be a skilled 
hand to apply them. 

HARDEN FILES 

The best way to harden files is to have a cast iron 
bucket filled with lead. Heat it until the lead is red 
hv^t, then plunge the file into this, handle up. This 
will give a uniform heat and the file will not warp so 
easy if the heat is right. In cooling the file off, use a 
box four or five feet long with salt water in, run the 
file back and forth endwise, not sideways, that will 
warp the file, take it out of the water while yet siz- 
zling. Now, if warped, set it between a device so that 
you can bend it right. While in this position sprinkle 
water over where you straighten until cold and the 
file will be right. 

HARDEN TAPS AND DIES 

Heat the tap or die to a red cherry, cool off entirely 
in water, brighten with an emery paper. Now, hold 
over a hot iron until the tap or die has a dark straw 
color, then cool off. If a light tap, the temper can be 
drawn over a gaslight, using a blowpipe. 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING 63 

BUTCHER KNIFE 

To make a butcher knife, one smith will simply take 
an old file, shape it into a knife, and harden. The 
best way to make a knife is to first draw out a piece of 
iron ^ inch wide and ^^ of an inch thick, twice the 
length of the knife. Prepare the steel the same width 
as the iron, }i of an inch thick, weld this steel in 
between the iron. This will make a knife that will 
not break. When ready to harden heat to a low red 
heat, cool off entirely in water. Brighten and hold 
over a hot iron until brown, then cool off. 

The steel should be good tool steel, a flat file will 
do, but the cuts must be ground or filed off entirely 
before you touch it with the hammer, for if the cuts 
are hammered in they will make cracks in the edge of 
the knife, and the same will break out. 



HOW TO REPAIR CRACKED CIRCULAR 
SAWS 

If a circular saw is cracked it can be repaired so that 
the crack will go no further, and if the crack is deep, 
it can be so remedied that there will be no danger in 
using it. Ascertain the end of the crack, then drill 
a j\-inch hole so that the crack will end in that hole. 
Countersink on each side and put in a rivet. Don't 
let the rivet stick its head over the face of the saw. 

If the crack is deep put another rivet about half an 
inch from the edge. If the saw is too hard to drill, 
heat two irons about i j{ square or round, square up 



64 MODERN BLACKSMITHING 

the ends and set the saw between the ends so that 
they will meet over the place where the hole is to be 
drilled. When the saw is dark blue, the temper is 
out. It might be a possibility that this will spring- the 
saw in some cases, therefore, I advise you to try drill- 
ing the hole without any change in temper. Prepare 
a drill that is harder than usual, use no oil, but water. 



HOW TO PREVENT A CIRCULAR SAW 
FROM CRACKING 

The reason why a circular saw cracks is, in most 
cases, incorrect filing. In filing a saw, never let a 
flat file with its square corners touch the bottom of the 
teeth you are filing; if you do, you will make a shtrl 
cut that will start the crack. The best way is to gum 
the saw in a saw gummer or on an emery wheel, or 
use a round-edged file. 



HOW TO SEW A BELT 

Belts can be riveted, sewed, or hooked together. A 
new leather belt should not be riveted, because such 
a belt will stretch and have to be cut out and sewed 
over quite often at first. There are hooks made of 
steel for belt sewing, these are all right when the pul- 
leys are not less than six inches in diameter and the 
speed is slow. In using these hooks be careful not tn 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING 65 

bend them too sharp or drive the bends together too 
hard; in so doing they will cut through the leather 
and pull out. Lacing is the best for all kinds of belts. 
In sewing a belt with lacing, first punch with a 
punch made for this purpose, holes in proportion to 
the width. Don't punch them too close to the ends. 
Begin sewing in the center holes and start so that both 
ends of the lacing will come out on the outside of the 
belt. Now sew with one end to each side, and be 
careful not to cross the lacing on the side next to the 
pulleys. The lacing should be straight on that side. 
When the belt is sewed punch a small hole a little up 
in the belt to receive the last end of the lacing; the 
last end should come out on the outside of the belt. 
In this end cut a little notch about three-fourths 
through the lacing close to the belt, and then cut the 
lacing off a quarter of an inch outside of this notch. 
This notch will act as a prong and prevent the lacing 
from pulling out. Tap it lightly with a hammer above 
the seam to smooth it down. 



POINTS ON BELTS 

In placing shafts to be connected by belts, care 
should be taken to get the right working distance one 
from the other. For smaller belts 12 to 15 feet is 
about the right distance. For large belts, a greater 
distance is wanted. The reason for this is that when 
pulleys are too close together there is no sag in the 



66 MODERN BLACKSMITHING 

belts and they must therefore be very tight in order 
to work. 

Belts should not have too much sag, or they will, if 
the distance between the pulleys is too far apart, pro- 
duce a great sag and a jerking motion which will be 
hard on the bearings. Never place one shaft directly 
over another, for then the belts must be very tight to 
do the work, and a tight belt will wear out quicker 
and break oftener in the lacing than a loose one; 
besides this the bearings will give out sooner. 

If a belt slips use belt oil or resin, or both. 



BOB SHOES 

In repairing old bob sleds is is difficult to find shoes 
to suit. But in every case the shoe can be fitted to 
suit without touching the runner. The trick here as 
in many other cases in the blacksmith business, lies in 
the heating. Any shoe can be straightened or bent to 
fit the runner if only heated right. A low cherry-red 
heat and a piece if iron to reach from the crooked end 
of the shoe and far enough back to leave a space 
between where it wants to be straightened. Now put 
it in the vise and turn the screws slowly and the shoe 
will stand a great deal. If too straight, put the shoe 
in between a couple of beams so that you can bend it 
back to the right shape. Remember the heat, 

I have put on hundreds and never knew of a shoe 
that broke when the heat was right. I must confess, 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING 67 

however, that my two first shoes broke, but I think I 
learned it cheap when I consider my success after 
that. The shoe should fit the runner snug. Ironing 
bobs is a very simple and easy thing, every black- 
smith, and even farmers sometimes, are able to iron 
their own sleds fairly well, and I don't think it will be 
of much interest for the readers of this book to treat 
that subject any further. 



AXES AND HATCHETS 

Dressing axes is quite a trick and few blacksmiths 
have mastered it. It is comparatively easy when one 
knows how. I have several times already warned 
against over heating and if this has been necessary 
before, it is more so now in this case. In heating an 
ax do not let the edge rest in the center of the fire, it 
will then be too hot at the edge before it is hot enough 
to hammer it out. Place the edge far enough in to let 
it over the hottest place in the fire. Go slow. When 
hot, draw it to the shape of a new axe, don't hammer 
on one side only. In so doing the ax will be flat on 
one side and curved up on the other. If uneven trim 
it off; trim the sides also if too wide; don't heat it 
over the eye; be sure you have it straight. When 
ready to harden, heat to a low red heat and harden in 
luke warm water. The heat should be only brown if 
it is a bright sunny day. Brighten and look for the 
temper. You will notice that the temper runs uneven; 



68 MODERN BLACKSMITHING 

it g-oes out to the corners first, therefore dip them (the 
corners) deeper when cooling, and with a wet rag 
touch the place on the edge where the temper v/ants 
to run out. Some smiths, when hardening, will smear 
the ax with tallow instead of brightening it, and hold 
it over the fire until the tallow catches fire, then cool 
it off. This is guess work, and the axe is soft in one 
place and too hard in another. The best way is to 
brighten the ax and you can see the temper, then 
there is no guess work about it. When blue cool it 
partly off and then while the ax is still wet you will 
observe under the water or through the water a copper 
color. This color will turn blue as soon as the ax is 
dry, and is the right color and temper. Cool it slowly, 
don't cool it off at once, but let it cool gradually, and 
it will be both hard and tough. 

By this simple method I have been very successful, 
breaking only three per cent, while no new ax of any 
make will ever do better than ten per cent. Some 
will even break at the rate of twelve and thirteen per 
cent. 

The ax factories, with all their skill and hardening 
compounds, have to do better yet to compete with me 
and my simple method. 



WELL DRILLS 

Well drills are made of different sizes and kinds. 
Club bits and Z bits. How to dress: heat to a low red 
heat. If nicked or broken, cut out, otherwise draw it 




MODERN BLACKSMITHING 69 

out to the size wanted. The caliper should touch the 
lips of the bit when measured diagonally so that the 
bit has the size on all corners. Heat to a low red heat 
and harden, the temper to be from dark straw color 
to blue according to the kind of drilling to be done. 
The trick, in two words, low heat. 



GRANITE TOOLS 

By granite tools is ineant tools or chisels used by 
granite or marble workers for cutting inscriptions on 
tombstones. 

When a man understands how these tools are used 
it is easier to prepare them. These are the kind of 
tools where an unusual hardness is required. The 
hammer used in cutting with this chisel is very small, 
and the blow would not hurt your nose, so light it is, 
therefore they will stand a high heat and temper. 
The chisels should be very thin for this work. When 
dressed and ready to harden, heat to a red heat and 
harden in the following solution: one gallon soft 
water, four ounces salt. Draw the temper to a straw 
color. 

A blacksmith once paid a high price for a receipt for 
hardening granite tools. The receipt was, aqua, one 
gallon; chloride of sodium, four ounces. This receipt 
he kept as a secret and the prepared compound he 
bought at the drug store, thus paying 50 cents for one 
gallon of water and four ounces of salt. The real 
worth is less than a cent. It is said he succeeded 



70 MODERN BLACKSMITHING 

remarkably well with his great compound, which he 
kept in a jug and only used when anything like granite 
tools were to be hardened. The reason why he suc- 
ceeded so well was because of his ignorance concerning 
his compound, not because it was not good enough. I 
hold that it is one of the best compounds, in fact, the 
best he could get. People in general like to be hum- 
bugged. If they only get something new or something 
they don't know anything about, then they think it 
wonderful. 

Salt and water should be called salt and water, and 
be just as much valued. Let us "call a spade a spade," 
the spade will not be more useful by another name, 
nor will it be less useful by calling it by its proper 
name. 



The Sultan, the Arch Poly g amt'st atui Emperor William in the 
same carriage. 



CHAPTER IV 




HEN vehicles were first used is hard 
to tell, but we know that they have 
been used for thousands of years 
befor? the Christian era. It is easy 
to imagine how they looked at that 
time, when we know how half- 
civilized people now make wagons. 
The first vehicle was only a two-wheeled cart called 
chariot. Such chariots were used in war and that it 
was a case of "great cry and little wool" is certain. 

The blacksmith used to be the wagon and carriage 
maker. Now it is only a rare case when a blacksmith 
makes a carriage, and when it happens most of the 
parts are bought. In 1565 the first coach was made in 
England. 

Now there are hundreds of factories making wagons 
and carriages and parts of them for repair use by 
blacksmiths and wagon makers. It is no use for any 
blacksmith or wagon maker to compete with these 
factories. We have neither the means nor the facili- 
ties to do it, and have to be content with the repairs 
they need. The most important repairs are the set- 
ting of tire, welding and setting axle stubs. 

71 



ya MODERN BLACKSMITHING 

SETTING TIRE 

Wagon tire is often set so that more harm than good 
is done to the wheel. 

In setting tire the first thing to do is to mark the 
tire. Many blacksmiths set tires without marking the 
tire. This is poor work. In order to do a good job 
the tire should be set so that it is in the same place it 
had. There are generally some uneven places in the 
fellows and when the tire is set the first time, it is hot 
all around and will settle down in these low places. 
Now, if the tire is not marked and set back in its exact 
bed, it will soon work loose again, and it is liable to 
dish the wheel too much as it don't sink into its place, 
but is held up in some places. Another thing, when 
a tire is worn so that it becomes thin it will settle down 
on the outside, especially when the wheel is much 
dished. Now if you reverse the tire it will only touch 
the fellow on the inner edge of the wheel, and leave 
an open space between the fellow and the tire on the 
outside. When a wheel has bolts every smith knows 
that it will make trouble for him if he don't get the 
tire back where it was. In every case take a file or a 
chisel and cut a mark in the tire near to the fellow 
plates, cut also a light mark in the fellow. These 
marks are to be on the inside of the wheel: i, because 
it will not be seen on that side ; 2, because in putting 
the tire on, the wheel should be placed with that side 
up. If there are nails in the tire cut them off with a 
thin chisel so that it will not mark the fellow, or drive 
them into the fellow with a punch. Next, measure 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING 73 

the wheel with the gauge (the wheel is supposed to be 
right, not fellow bound nor any spokes loose in the 
tenon). This done, heat the tire and shrink it. If 
the wheel is straight give it half an inch draw, some- 
times even five-eighths if the wheel is heavy and 
strong. But if the wheel is poor and dished, do not 
give it more than one-fourth-inch draw. One tire only 
with a little draw can be heated in the forge, but if 
there is more than one tire heat them outside in a fire 
made for this purpose, or in a tire heater. 

There are different ways of cooling the tire. Some 
smiths have a table in a tank, they place the wheel on 
the table and with a lever sink both wheel and tire in 
the water. There are many objections to this, i. You 
will have to soak the whole wheel; 2, it is inconven- 
ient to put the tire on ; 3, in order to set the tire right, 
it is necessary to reach the tire from both sides with 
the hammer; 4, when spokes have a tendency to creep 
out, or when the wheel is much dished, the wheel 
should be tapped with the hammer over the spokes. 
Now, to be able to perform all these moves, one must 
have, first, a table; this table to be about twelve 
inches high and wide enough to take any wheel, with 
a hole in the center of table to receive the hub. On 
one side you may make a hook that will fall over the 
wheel and hold the tire down while you get it on. 
Close to this table have a box 5^ feet long, 12 inches 
wide and 12 inches deep. On each side bolt a piece of 
two by six about three feet long. In these planks cut 
notches in which you place an iron rod, run through 
the hub. On this rod the wheel will hang. The 



74 MODERN BLACKSMITHING 

notches can be made so that any sized wheel will just 
hang- down enough to cover the tire in the water. In 
this concern you can give the wheel a whirl and it will 
turn so swift that there will be water all around the 
tire. It can be stopped at any time and the tire set 
right, or the spokes tapped. With these accommoda- 
tions and four helpers I have set six hundred hay rake 
wheels in nine and one-half hours. This was in a 
factory where all the tires were welded and the wheels 
ready so that it was nothing but to heat the tires and 
put them on. I had three fires with twelve tires in 
each fire. An artesian well running through the water 
box kept the water cool. 

If the fire is not hot enough to make it expand a tire 
puller is needed. A tire puller can be made in many 
ways and of either wood or iron. Buggy tire is more 
particular than wagon tire and there are thousand of 
buggy wheels spoiled every year by poor or careless 
blacksmiths. In a buggy tire one-eighth of an inch 
draw is the most that it will stand, while most wheels 
will stand only one-sixteenth. If the wheel is badly 
dished don't give it any draw at all, the tire should 
then measure the same as the wheel, the heat in the 
tire is enough. 

If the wheel is fellow-bound cut the fellows to let 
them down on the spokes. 

If the spokes are loose on the tenon wedge them up 
tight. 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING 75 

BACK DISHED WHEEL 

For a back dished wheel a screw should be used to 
set the wheel right. Place the wheel on the table 
front side up. Put wood blocks under the fellow to 
raise the wheel up from the table. Place a two by- 
four over the hole under the table ; have a bolt long 
enough to reach through the two by four and up 
through the hub, a piece of wood over the hub for the 
bolt to go through; screw it down with a tail nut. 
When the wheel is right, put the tire on. The tire for 
such a wheel should have more draw than for a wheel 
that is right. 

If a buggy wheel has been dished it can be helped a 
little without taking the tire off. Place the wheel on 
the anvil so that the tire will rest against the anvil. 
Don't let the tire rest lengthwise on the anvil. If you 
do, the tire will be bent out of shape when you begin 
to hammer on it. Use the least surface possible of the 
anvil and hammer on the edge of the tire ; the stroke 
of the hammer to be such that the blow will draw the 
tire out from the fellow, A tire too tight can be 
remedied this way. 

When bolting a wheel the tire will be out of place 
unless the tire has been shrunk alike on both sides of 
the fellow plates. A smith used to setting tires will 
be able to get the holes almost to a perfect fit. If a 
tire is too short, don't stretch it with a sharp fuller 
that will cut down into the tire, when the tire is a little 
worn it will break in this cut. Draw it out with a wide 
fuller and smooth it down with the hammer. If it is 



76 MODERN BLACKSMITHING 

much too short, weld in a piece. This is easily done. 
Take a piece of iron j^-inch thick, the width of the tire 
and the length needed, say about three inches. Taper 
the ends and heat it to a red heat. Place it on the tire 
in the fire and weld. This will give material for 
stretching. 

If the wheel has a strong back dish it cannot be set 
right to stay with the tire alone, as a bump against the 
fellow is apt to throw the dish back. It is therefore 
safer in all back dished wheels to take the spokes out 
of the hole and set them right by wedges in the end of 
the spokes. These wedges should not be driven from 
outside in but be placed in the end of the spoke so that 
they will wedge into the spoke when the same is 
driven back into its place. Use glue. 

HOW TO PUT ON NEW TIRE 

When you have the bar of either steel or iron for the 
tire, first see if it is straight, if not be sure to make it. 
Next place the tire on the floor and place the wheel on 
top of the tire, begin in such a way that the end of the 
fellow will be even with the end of the tire. Now roll 
the wheel over the tire. If a heavy tire cut it three 
inches longer than the wheel, if a thin tire, two inches. 
Now bend the tire in the bender. Measure the wheel 
with the gauge, then measure the tire ; if it is a heavy 
wagon tire and a straight wheel cut the tire one-fourth 
of an inch shorter than the wheel. If it is a buggy 
tire cut it the size of the wheel. In welding these 
tires they will shorten enough to be the size wanted. 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING 77 

HOW TO WELD TIRES 

There are many different ideas practiced in welding 
tires. One smith will narrow both ends before weld- 
ing; another will cut the edges off after it is welded. 
This is done to prevent it from spreading or getting 
too wide over the weld. I hold that both these ideas 
are wrong. The first one is wrong because when the 
ends are narrowed down it is impossible to make them 
stay together until the weld is taken, especially if it is 
a narrow tire. The second idea is wrong because it 
cuts off the best part of the weld and weakens it. 
Some smiths will split the tires, others will rivet them 
together. This is done to hold the tire in place until 
it has been welded. There is no need of this trouble, 
but for a new beginner a rivet is all right. 

I shall now give my experience in welding tire, and 
as this experience has been in a factory where thou- 
sands of wheels are made yearly, I suppose it will be 
worth something to the reader. 

When the tire is ready to weld draw down the ends 
and let them swell as much as they want to. Now let 
the helper take the end that is to lay on top and pull it 
towards the floor, the other end to rest on the anvil. 
This will give that end a tendency to press itself 
steadily against the lower end. Next place this end 
on top of the other end. The ends must now be hot 
enough to allow them to be shaped. You will now 
notice that the top end is wider than the tire, so is the 
lower end. The tire is to be so placed that the swelled 
parts reach over and inside of each other a little. Now 



78 MODERN BLACKSMITHING 

give a couple of blows right over the end of the under 
tire. Next tap the swelled sides down over the tire. 
This will hold the tire together so that it cannot slip 
to either side, and the swelled end of the under tire 
will prevent it from pulling out. If the top end has 
been so bent that it has a tendency to press down and 
out a little, the tire will now be in a good shape to 
weld. 

Before you put the tire into the fire, let me remind 
you of what I have said before about the fire. Many 
blacksmiths are never able to weld a tire tight on the 
outside because of a poor, low, and unclean fire. If 
the fare is too old or too fresh it will not give a good 
heat for welding tire. If you have a good big fire high 
up from the tuyer, then you are all right. Place your 
tire in the fire and proceed as follows: No matter 
whether it is an iron or soft steel tire, sand is the best 
welding compound and nothing else should be used; 
but if you lose the first heat then borax might be used 
as it will prevent the tire from scaling and burning. 
When you have the right heat, place the tire on the 
anvil this way; let the tire rest against the inside edge 
of the anvil. If the lower end of the tire is allowed to 
come down on the anvil it will cool off and. can never 
be welded that way. Now hold the tire this way until 
you have the hammer ready to give the first blow. 
Then let the tire down and strike the first blows 
directly on top and over the end of the under end. 
This is important and if the first blows are not directed 
to this very place the lower end will be too cool ta 
weld when you get to it. Next weld down the upper 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING 79 

end, this done turn the tire on edge and while it is in 
a welding heat come down on it heavy with hammer, 
if a buggy tire, and with a sledge and hammer if a 
heavy wagon tire. Hammer it down until it is con- 
siderably narrower over the weld as it will swell out 
when dressed down. This way the weld has all the 
material in the iron and the lapped lips will help hold 
the weld together. A very poor smith can weld tires 
to stay in this manner. The edges should be rounded 
off with the hammer and filed to make the tire look the 
same over the weld as in the iron. If there should be 
any trouble to weld a steel tire place a little steel 
borings over the weld and use borax. 

A blacksmith in Silver Lake, Minn. , working for a 
wagon maker of that place, when welding a tire failed 
entirely after half a dozen attempts, and he got so 
angry that he threw the tire down on the floor with all 
his might. It happened to crush the wagon makers 
big toe. This was more than the otherwise good- 
natured man could stand, and instantly the smith was 
seen hurled through an open window — the wagon 
maker attached. Result: separation and law suit. 
All this because the smith had not read my book. 

When a light buggy tire is to be set mistakes are 
often made in measuring the tire. The tire is too 
light in itself to resist the pressure of the gauge. The 
smith tries to go it light and if there is not the same 
pressure in measuring the tire there was in measuring 
the wheel, it will not give the same results; and when 
the tire is put on it is either too tight or too loose. 
I worked for many years on a tool to hold the tire 



8o MODERN BLACKSMITHING 

Steady in order to overcome this trouble. The only 
device that I have ever seen for this purpose before is 
the anvil close up to the forge, one side of the tire on 
the forge, the other on the anvil. This arrangement 
would crowd the smith, roast his back and expose him 
to ridicule, but it will not help to ruin the tire. 

The tool I invented is a tire holder made of cast 
iron. It consists of a standard or frame with a shank 
in to fit in the square hole in the anvil; in the stand- 
ard is a slot hole from the bottom up. On the back of 
the standard are cogs on both sides of the slot hole. 
Through this goes a clutch hub with cogs in to corre- 
spond with the cogs in the standard. On the outside 
of the standard is an eccentric lever. Through this 
lever is a tapered hole to fit over the clutch hub. This 
lever is tapered so that it will fit different thicknesses, 
while the cogs and eccentric lever will adjust it to dif- 
ferent widths. This device is so cheap that any smith 
can afford to have it. 

Next time you buy a quart of whisky sit down and 
figure out which will do you more good, my tire holder 
or the whisky. Figure 7 is an illustration of my 
holder. This tool is better than an advertisement in 
your local paper, of which the following story will 
convince you. A blacksmith in a prohibition county 
in a northern Iowa town got into the habit of going 
over to a Minnesota town for a keg of beer every 
month. On one of his periodical visits to this place 
he saw a crowd of men standing around a road grader 
in the road. As he approached he found that the 
grader had a serious break-down and the men were 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING 



8i 



just discussing the possibilities of getting the grader 
repaired in the village shops. One said no smith 
could do it, another thought they could if they only 
had tools. "I know a man," said one in the party, 




Fig. 7 
holmstrom tire holder 

"that can if any man can, and he has tools I am sure. 
I was over to his shop the other day to have my buggy 
tire set, and mind you, he had the slickest tool you 
ever saw to hold the tire in ; I never saw a tool like 
that before." "Well," said one, "that has nothing to 
do with this case." "Yes it has," said the road boss, 



8a MODERN BLACKSMITHING 

"my father always used to say, 'A mechanic is known 
by the tools he uses, ' and when a smith has good tools 
in one line, he has them in another, and I shall give 
this man a chance." 

Our traveling smith had heard enough. This was a 
temperance and tool lecture to him, he began to think 
of all the trips he had made to this town. Twelve 
trips a year, three dollars a trip for liquor and the time 
lost must be worth two dollars per day. He figured 
it out and would have turned back if he had not been 
so close to the place. He took a glass of beer but it 
didn't taste as usual and he asked for a cigar. With 
this he returned, and on the road home swore off for 
good. He bought a tire holder at once to start in 
with, and by this time he is one of the best smiths in 
the country, always at his stand ready to do the work 
brought to him, and his customers now know that he 
is to be found in his place, with tools of all kinds and 
a sober hand to use them with. Do thou likewise. 



TIRE IN SECTIONS 

Many of us remember the time when tires were 
made in sections and nailed on, at this time the wheels 
were more substantially made, because the tire could 
not be set as tight as it is now, and the wheel had to 
be made so that it would stand the usage almost 
independent of the tire. Our endless tire is a great 
improvement over the tires made in sections. The 
wagon tires as they are made now are, I think, as near 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING 83 

right as they can be, in regard to size of iron, in pro- 
portion to the wheel. But it is different with buggy 
tires. I hold that they are all made too light to be of 
any protection to the fellows. I understand the reason 
why they are made this way, but if a man wants a 
light rig, let that be the exception and not the rule. 




Tire should not be less than one-fourth of an inch 
thick for seven-eighths wide, and five-sixteenths for 
an inch wide and over. 



EXPANSION OF THE TIRE 

A tire four feet in diameter will expand two inches 
and a quarter, or three-sixteenths of an inch to the 
foot. Steel tire expands less. This is the expansion 
of red heat. If heated less it expands less, but it is no 
trouble to make the tire expand for all the draw it 
needs. 



84 MODERN BLACKSMITHING 

A furnace for tire heating comes handy in cities 
where there is no chance for making a fire outside, but 
every smith that has room for a fire outside will do 
better to heat the tire that way. Don't build a tire- 
heating furnace in the shop if wood is to be used for 
fuel, because the heat and smoke will turn in your 
face as soon as the doors of the furnace are opened. 



WELDING AXLES 

When a worn buggy axle is to be stubbed, proceed 
as follows : First, measure the length of the old axle. 
For this purpose take a quarter inch rod of iron, bend 
a square bend about an inch long on one end. With 
this rod measure from the end of the bearing, that is, 
let the hook of your rod catch against the shoulder at 
the end where the thread begins, not against the 
collars, for they are worn, nor should you measure 
from the end of the axle, for the threaded part is not 
of the same length. Now place your stub on the end 
of the axle and mark it where you want to cut it off. 
Cut the axle one-fourth inch longer than it should be 
when finished. Next heat the ends to be welded and 
upset them so that they are considerably thicker over 
the weld; lap the ends like No. i. Figure 6, weld and 
use sand, but if the ends should not ~he welded very 
well then use borax. These stubs are made of soft 
steel, and will stand a higher heat than tool steel, but 
remember it is steel. If the ends have been upset 
enough they will have stock enough to draw down on, 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING 85 

and be of the right length. If this is rightly done 
one cannot tell where the weld is. Set the axle by 
the gauge, if you have one, if not, by the wheels. 

AXLE GAUGE 

A gauge to set axles by can be made in this way: 
When you have set an axle by the wheels so that it is 
right, take a piece of iron i}( -s. j{, six feet long, bend 
a foot on this about six inches long, with a leg on the 
other end. See No. 5, Figure 8; the leg to be mov- 
able and set either with a wedge or a set screw to fit 
for wide and narrow track. The gauge to be set 
against the bottom side of the axle. The pitch to be 
given a set of buggy wheels should be from one to one 
and one-half inches. I would recommend one and a 
half inches. This will be enough to insure a plumb 
spoke when the vehicle is loaded. It will also insure 
safety to the rider from mud slinging. By pitch, I 
mean that the wheels are one and a half inches wider 
at the upper rim than they'are down at the ground. 
Every smith ought to have a gauge of this kind, it is 
easy to make and it saves a lot of work, as there is no 
use of the wheels being put on and an endless measur- 
ing in order to get the axle set right. 

GATHER GAUGE 

By gather I mean that the wheels should be from 
one-fourth to one-half an inch wider back than in 
front. Don't misunderstand me now. I don't mean 



86 MODERN BLACKSMITHING 

that the hind wheels should be wider than the front 
wheels, I mean that a wheel should have a little gather 
in front, as they are inclined to spread and throw the 




Fig. 8 



bearing on the nut, while, if they have a little gather, 
they will run right, and have a tendency to throw the 
bearing on the collars of the axle. If they do they will 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING ©7 

run more steady, especially when the axle is a little 
worn. 

A gauge for this purpose can be made like Figure 8, 
No. 6. This gauge to be fitted to the front side of the 
axle when you make it. It can be made of i x ^ 
about three feet long, the forked end to reach the cen- 
ter of the axle. With these two gauges axles can be 
set right without the wheels. 



"The sluggard will not plow by reason of cold; therefore he 
shall beg in harvest and have nothing" — Proverbs. 



CHAPTER V 




HOW TO MAKE PLOWSHARES 

|HERE are two kinds of shares: lip shares 

and bar shares, and they must be treated 

differently. We will first treat of bar 

shares. The first thing to do when a 

plow is brought for a new lay is to look 

over the condition of the landside. By 

landside is meant the bar to which the share is welded. 

Now if this bar is worn down so that you think it too 

weak to stand for a new share, then make a new one. 



HOW TO MAKE A LANDSIDE 

For a 14-inch plow take 2 J^ x ^, or 2j^ x y\. For a 
16-inch plow, use 2j^XY''g, or 3 x ^\ common iron. 
Cut the iron diagonally at the point. This will prepare 
a point on each side of the cut ; that is, you had better 
cut out two landsides at a time. But if you do not 
want to do that, then cut the iron off square. Next 
take a piece of common iron 3 x 14^, 13 inches long for a 
shin ; cut this diagonally, and it will make shins for 
two. Some plow factories use steel for shins, but that 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING 



89 



is not necessary, for it will not make the plowshare 
any better, but, on the other hand, will be quite a 




JOHN DEERE, THE INVENTOR OF STEEL PLOWS 

bother when you want to drill a hole for a fincoulter if 
it is hardened. Place this shin on the land side of the 
laiidside, and weld. In preparing the shoulder of the 



96 MODERN BLACKSMITHING 

shin for the plate use a ship upsetter. See No. 3, 
Figure 8. 

Not one out of 500 blacksmiths have this tool. Every 
smith should have one. You cannot do a good and 
quick job w^ithout it. 

When you shape the point of the landside hold it 
vertical, that is, the edge straight up and down, or 
plumb. If you don't do this, there will be trouble in 
welding, especially if you have held it under. Then 
it will lean under the square when welded, and in such 
a case it is hard to get a good weld, and if you do you 
will break it up when you attempt to set it to the 
square. Another thing, don't make much slant on the 
landside up at the joint, for, if you do, you can never 
weld the share good up there. Give more slant 
towards the point. Be sure to have the right curve. 
It is very important to have the landside right: i, 
Because it is the foundation for the plow; 2, if the 
landside is right the start is right, and then there is no 
trouble to get the share right. When finished place 
the old landside on top of the new, with the upper 
edges even; don't go by the bottom edges, as they are 
worn. Now mark the hole. You may leave the front 
hole for the foot of the beam this time. When holes 
are drilled, then put a bolt through the hole of the foot 
of beam and landside ; now place the plow on the land- 
side and measure 14 inches from the floor up to the 
beam. In this position mark the front hole of the foot 
of the beam. If the beam has been sprung up you 
will now have remedied that. So much about a new 
landside. On the other side, if the old landside is not 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING 91 

too much worn to be used, then repair as follows-. 
Take a piece of ^-inch thick flat iron the width of the 
landside about ten inches long. Cut one end off diag- 
onally, this end to be flattened down. Why should this 
end be cut diagonally? This piece of iron is to be 
placed on the inner side of the landside and as far back 
as to cover the hole that holds the plate. Now, if this 
iron is cut square off, and left a little too thick on that 
end, it will cut into the landside and weaken it; but if 
cut diagonally and drawn out thin it will not weaken, 
nor can it break when cut in this manner. To be sure 
of a good strong weld, upset over the weld. I hold 
that this is the most important thing in making a new 
lay. "No hoof, no horse" — no landside, no plow. 
There are only a few blacksmiths recognizing this fact. 
Most of the smiths will simply take a piece of iron 
about half an inch square and weld it on top of the 
point. This is the quickest way, but it is also the 
poorest way, but they cannot very well do it in any 
other way, for if you have no shin upsetter to dress 
and shape the shoulder for the plate, then it is quite a 
job to repair any other way. There are three reasons 
why a landside cannot be repaired with a patch on top 
of the point: i, The shin or shoulder in an old landside 
is worn down sometimes to almost nothing, and the 
only way to get stock enough to make a good shoulder 
is to put a good-sized piece of iron on the inside, back 
and behind this shoulder. If a new plate is to be put 
on and this is .not done, you will have to draw down 
the plate to the thickness of the old shoulder, and in 
such a case the plate will add no strength to the share. 



92 MODERN BLACKSMITHING 

2, The landside is, in many cases, worn down on the 
bottom to a thin, sharp edge, and by placing the piece 
on top the landside will be as it was on the bottom 
side, where it ought to be as thick as you can make it. 

3, The weakest place in the landside is just at the 
shoulder of the shin, and by placing the piece on top it 
will not reach over this weak place, and with a new 
long point on, the strain will be heavier than before, 
and the landside will either bend or break. I have in 
my experience had thousands of plows that have been 
broken or bent on account of a poorly-repaired land- 
side. Blacksmiths, with only a few exceptions, are all 
making this mistake. 

The landside is to the plow what the foundation is to 
the house. No architect will ever think of building a 
substantial house without a solid foundation. No 
practical plowsmith will ever try to make a good plow 
without a solid landside. 

For prairie or brush breakers, where no plate is 
used, it will be all right to repair the landside by plac- 
ing a piece of iron on top of it, provided it is not much 
worn, and the patch reaches back far enough to 
strengthen the landside. But even in such cases it is 
better to lay it on the inner side. 



LANDSIDE POINT FOR SLIPSHARE 

We have now learned how to prepare the landside 
for a solid or long bar share. We shall now learn how 
to make a landside point for slipshares. There are 



/ 

MODERN BLACKSMITHING 93 

smiths that will take the old worn-out stub of a slip- 
share point, weld a piece to it, and then weld the share 
on. This is very ridiculous and silly. There is noth- 
ing left in such a point to be of any use. Make a new 
one; be sure to make it high enough — at least half an 
inch higher than the share is to be when finished. 
This will give j'ou material to weld down on. If the 
landside is not high enough the share will be lov\^er — ■ 
that is, the joint of the lay will be lower than the joint 
of the mouldboard, and it should be the other way. 



PLOW OF 200 YEARS AGO 

On this point many an old smith and every beginner 
makes mistakes, and not only in this case, but in every- 
thing else. Whatever you have to make, be sure to 
have stock enough to work down on, and you will be 
all right. It is better to have too much than not 
enough. 

In shaping the point remember to hold it perpendic- 
ular, and give very little slant up at the joint, but 
more towards the point. If too much slant up at the 
joint there will be difficulty in welding it. Remember 
this. Don't make the point straight like a wedge; if 
you do the share will be above the frog. Give it the 
same circle it had, and the share will rest solid on the 
frog. This is another important point to remember: 



94 MODERN BLACKSMITHING 

The lay will not have the full strength if it don't rest 
on the frog, and it will not be steady, and the plow will 
not run good, for in a few days the share flops up and 
down. 

When a 14-inch share is finished the point, from the 
joint of the share to the extreme end of the point, 
should be II inches, not longer, and for a 16-inch lay, 
12 inches, not longer. The point acts as a lever on the 
plow, and if it is too long the plow will not work good, 
and it is liable to break. Shape the point so that when 
you hold it up against the plow it will be in line with 
the bottom of the landside, but about half an inch 
wider than the landside to weld on. If it is a plow 
where the point of the mouldboard rests on the land- 
side point, and it is a double shin, then cut out in the 
landside point for the point of the mouldboard to rest 
in. See No. 1, Figure 9. This will be a guide for you 
when welding the share, and it will slip onto the plow 
easier when you come to fit it to the same. I think 
enough has been said about the landside to give the 
beginner a good idea of how to make one. And if the 
landside is right, it comes easier to do the rest. In 
making a plowshare there are many things to remem- 
ber, and one must be on the alert right along, for it 
will give lots of trouble if any point is overlooked. 

We will now weld a share to a long bar landside. 
The landside having been finished and bolted to the 
beam or its foot, or to a standard, the share is to be 
shaped to fit. Hold the share up to the plow. First 
look if the angle for the point is right in the share ; if 
not, heat the share, and if under the angle wanted 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING 



95 



■upset up at the joint; if over the angle wanted, drive 
it back at the point. In doing this hold the edge of 
the share over a wooden block instead of the anvil, so 
as not to batter the thin edge of the share. If the 
share has been Tipset so that it has a narrow rib along 
the point where it is to be welded, draw this down and 
make it level. In most blank shares the point should 




Fig. 9 



be raised to fit the landside point, so that when the 
same is placed on the floor the edge of the share will 
follow the floor or leveling block (if you have it), from 
the heel right up to the point, then it will be easy to 
make the edge come down to the square in finishing it 
up. If this is not done the edge of the share from the 
throat back will generally be too high. 

In Figure 9 two shares are represented, one with the 
landside point on ready for welding. In this share the 
point of the same has been raised so that the share 



g6 MODERN BLACKSMITHING 

comes down to the square in the throat. The other is 
a blank share, straight in the point between Nos. 4 and 
5, resting on the extreme heel and point with gap 
between the edge of share and floor at No. 3. In most 
blank shares the point is too straight, and the point 
too much bent down at No. 4. Bend the share so that 
the whole length from heel to point will follow the 
floor. When the share is held in a position as shown 
in this cut, don't fit the share to the brace, for in most 
old plows the brace has been bent out of shape. Fit, 
the share to the square, and then fit the brace to the 
share, and you are right. Many a blacksmith will 
never think of this, but it is important. 

Next joint the share ; that is, if the joint does not fit 
the joint of the mouldboard, make it fit either by filing 
or grinding. This done, make the holes, and when yo; 
center-punch for same draw the holes a trifle; that 
means make the center mark a little towards the inner 
side of the mark, especially for the hole next to the 
point. This is also an important point overlooked by 
most blacksmiths. The holes that hold the joints 
together should act as a wedge. If they don't the 
joints will pull apait and leave a gap between, where 
dirt and straw will gather, and if a slipshare the share 
will soon work loose and the plow will flop. 

The holes having been punched and countersunk, 
the share should be bolted to the brace. Next put on 
the clamp. It is not necessary that the clamp should 
be put on v/hile the share is on the plow. I never do 
that. I used to for many years, but there is no need 
of doing it, for if the share has the right angle it must 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING 97 

come to its place when even with the point on the out- 
side, and a cut should be made in the landside just at 
the place where the point of the mouldboard rests on 
same, this cut will also be a guide. 

Now a few words concerning the clamp. Figure 8, 
No. 7 illustrates a clamp iov this purpose. The set 
screw at the bottom serves to hold the landside from 
leaning over or under, while the setscrew at the upper 
end holds the share against the point. If this clamp is 
rightly made it works splendid. The clamp should be 
placed over the plowshare up at the joint, because the 
first heat or weld should be on the point. Some smiths 
— well, for a fact, most smiths — take the first weld up 
at the joint. This is wrong. The point should be 
welded first. Then you have a chance to set the share 
right and fit it snug to the point the whole way up. 
You cannot make a good weld if the share does not fit 
snug against the landside point, to prevent air and cin- 
ders from playing between. Further, the share should 
be upset over the weld, when this is not done in the 
blank share; the lower corner of the share will pro- 
trude over the landside. This should be dressed down 
smooth. The next weld should be taken up at the 
joint. For welding compound use steel borings and 
scales from either steel or iron. 

After you have moistened the place where the weld 
is to be taken with borax, then fill in between the share 
and point with steel borings, and on top of this a little 
steel or iron scales. Do not buy any welding com- 
pound of any kind, because if you learn to know what 
you have in the shop you will find that there never was 



98 MODERN BLACKSMITHING 

a welding compound made to excel borax, steel scales, 
steel or iron borings, and powdered glass. All these 
you have without buying. 

In heating go slow. If you put on too strong blast 
the share will burn before the iron is hot enough to 
weld. When ready to weld let your helper take with 
a pair of tongs over the share and landside to hold 
them tight together while you strike the first blow. 
Use a large hammer and strike with a pressure on the 
hammer the first blows, until you are sure it sticks ; 
then come down on it with force. 

I have made it a practice, no matter how good this 
weld seems to be, to always take a second weld. This 
weld to be a light one. The share and landside are 
after the first weld settled, so it takes very little to 
weld them then. On the other hand, the first weld 
might look to all appearances solid, but it is not 
always. With this precaution I never had a share that 
ripped open in the weld, while it is a rare thing to find 
a share made by a blacksmith that does not rip. Now, 
then, weld down toward the point. The point should 
not be allowed to have any twist, for if it does, it will 
turn the plow over on the side. Now set the edge 
right, beginning at the heel. If the share is made for 
hard fall plowing give more suction than for a share 
for soft spring plowing. Grind and polish before you 
harden, and after it is hardened touch 'it up lightly 
with the polish wheel. Much polishing or grinding 
after hardening will wear off the case hardening. 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING 95 

SLIPSHARE 

We shall now weld a slipshare. When the point is 
finished hold it to the plow with a pair of tongs while 
you fit the share. When the share is fitted take the 
point off from the plow and fasten it to the share with 
the clamp. As I have said before, there is no need of 
fastening the share to the landside point with the plow 
as a guide. If the landside and share are right there 
cannot be any mistake, and it comes easier to screw 
them together over the anvil. Now proceed as with a 
long bar share, and when the weld up at the joint has 
been taken, fit the share to the plow while hot. Some 
smiths in preparing the landside point for a slipshare 
will place the share so that the point is a little too 
short back where it rests against the end of the plate. 
This is a bad idea. It is claimed that, in welding, the 
landside point will swell enough to make it reach up 
against the plate. This is true, if the landside point is 
only high enough; but if it is low and you lose a heat 
in welding, as most smiths do, then your landside point 
will be both too low and too short. Thousands of 
shares are made every year that have this fault. 
Therefore, whatever you are doing have stock enough. 
It is easy to cut off from the landside while yet hot, 
but it is difficult to repair if too short. No share will 
work steadily if the point does not rest right against 
the plate. 

In blacksmithing, every beginner, and many an old 
smith, makes the mistake of providing less stock than 
is needed for the work to be done. It is essential to 



lOO MODERN BLACKSMITHING 

have material to dress down on; and if a heat is lust, 
or a weld, it will make the stock in the article weaker, 
and to meet these exigencies there must be material 
from the start, enough for all purposes. There is also 




^^ 



a wide difference of opinion as to whether the share 
should be welded at the point or at the joint first. 
While I was yet a young man and employed in a plow 
factory, I had an opportunity to see the different ideas 
set to a test. In the factory the practice was to weld 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING loi 

the point first. A plowman from another State was 
engaged, and he claimed that it would be better to weld 
the share first tip at the joint. He was given a chance 
to prove his assertion, and the result was that 3 per 
cent of his shares broke over the inner side of the 
landside at the joint in the hardening, and 10 per cent 
ripped up in the weld at the same place. These are 
results that will always follow this method. 

The first, because the share was not upset over the 
weld; the second, because a good weld cannot be 
taken unless the share is dressed down snug against 
the point when hot. As far as the number of shares 
welded per day was concerned, this man was not in it. 
Still, this man was a good plowman, and was doing 
better than I ever saw a man with this idea do before. 
For it is a fact, that out of one thousand plowshares 
welded by country blacksmiths, nine hundred and 
ninety will rip up. I have been in different States, 
and seen more than many have of this kind of work, 
but, to tell the truth, there is no profession or trade 
where there is so much poor work done as in black- 
smithing, and especially in plow work. Blacksmiths 
often come to me, even from other States, to learn my 
ideas of making plowshares. On inquiring, I gener- 
ally find that they weld a piece on the top of the old 
landside and proceed to weld without touching the 
share or trying to fit it at all. We need not be sur- 
prised at this ignorance, when we know that it is only 
fifty years since John Deere reformed the plow industry 
entirely and made the modern plow now in use. It is 
impossible for blacksmiths in the country to have 



102 MODERN BLACKSMITHING 

learned this part of their business, in so short a time, 
successfully. Still, I have seen blacksmiths prosper 
and have quite a reputation as plowmen, while, for a 
fact, they never made a plowshare that was, from the 
standpoint of a practical plowman, right. 



'''He that til let h his land shall be satisfied.^' — Proverbs. 



CHAPTER VI 




HOW TO HARDEN A PLOWSHARE 



share is of soft center steel, 
harden as follows: First, 
!at the whole point to a 
very low red heat; then 
turn the share face 
down, with the heel 
over the fire, and the 
point in such a posi- 
tion that it is about two inches higher than the heel. 
This will draw the fire from the heel along towards 
the point, and the whole length of the share will be 
heated almost in one heat. Be sure to get an even 
heat, for it will warp or crack if the heat is uneven. 
When the share has a moderate red heat take it out, 
and you will notice that it is sprung up along the edge. 
This is the rule, but there are exceptions, and the share 
is then spning down. In either case set it right ; if 
sprung up set it down a little under the square; if 
sprung down set it a little over the square. You can- 
not with any success set it by a table or leveling block, 
because this will, first, cool ofiE the edge, second, it 

103 



I04 MODERN BLACKSMITHING 

must be either over or under the square a little. 
Therefore, you must use your eye and set the share 
with the hammer over the anvil. This done, hold 
the share over the fire until it has a low red heat, as 
stated before ; then plunge it into a tub of hardening 
compound, such as is sold by the traveling man, or 
sprinkle the share with prussiate of potash and plunge 
it into a barrel of salt water. 

You will notice that the share will warp or spring 
out of shape more in the heating than it does in the 
cooling, if the heat is right. Some smiths never look 
at the share when hot for hardening, but simply plunge 
it into the tub, and then they say it warped in harden- 
ing, while it was in the heating. If the share is too 
hot it will warp in cooling also. 



HOW TO POINT A SHARE 

Points are now sold by dealers in hardware, and 
every smith knows how they are shaped. There is, 
however, no need of buying these ; every smith has old 
plowshares from which points can be cut, provided you 
don't use an old share too much worn. The points 
sold are cut with the intention that most of the point 
is to be placed on top of the plow point. This is all 
right in some instances, while it is wrong in others. 
When you cut a piece for a point make it the same 
shape at both ends. Now, when a plow needs the 
most of the point on top bend the end to be on top 
longer than the end to go underneath, and vice versa, 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING 105 

when the point wants to be heaviest on the bottom 
side. I hold that in ordinary cases the most of the 
point should be on the bottom side. If it is it will 
wear better and keep in the ground longer, for as soon 
as the point is worn off underneath it comes out of the 
ground. 

Don't monkey with old mower sections or anything 
like them for points, for, although the material is good, 
it is not the quality alone but also the quantity that 




JAPANESE PLOW 

goes to make up a good point. It takes only a few 
hours' plowing to wear off a section from the extreme 
point of the share, and then there is only the iron of 
the plow point left to wear against, and your time 
spent for such a point is lost. Another thing, it takes 
just as much time to put on such a point as it does to 
put on a good one for which you charge the regular 
price. 

In putting on a point of thin material you must go 
unusually slow, or you will burn the steel before the 
plow point is hot. 



io6 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING 



Smiths, as a rule, draw out a round back point. 
They seem to be afraid of coming down on the point 
with the hammer for fear it will spring the point 
towards the land. This can be remedied by using a 
wooden block for anvil. Then you can set the point 
back without battering the edge of the share. The 




BENCH FOR HOLDING PLOWS WITHOUT BEAM 



suck of a point should be one-eighth of an inch. Don't 
split the steel of the point of a share open and wedge 
a point in. Make one long enough to reach around 
the point, say from 8 to lo inches long, and you will 
have a good substantial job. There is too much 
experimenting in putting on points yet, but the method 
just described is the only good one. 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING 107 

HOW TO SHARPEN A PLOWSHARE 

If the share to be sharpened is a hardened share, and 
it is the first time it is sharpened, then be careful not 
to heat it too far towards the joint, so as to leave the 
temper as much the same as possible. For my part, I 
never follow this rule. I heat it as much as is needed 
to draw it out good, and then harden it over again. 
But beginners can sharpen a new share once without 
hardening it over, if the temper is not entirely out of 
the share. To sharpen a share without springing it 
some is an impossibility. No device will prevent this, 
and the only way to set it right is to heat it all over. 
In sharpening a share it is drawn out on one side, and 
it is natural that that side is made longer, and as a 
result the share must warp. In a circular saw it takes 
only a couple of blows on one side to get it out of 
shape ; then what else can we expect in a plowshare, 
when all the hammering is done on one side? 

Some smiths turn the bottom side of the share up 
and hammer on that side, but this is wrong; first, 
because in so doing you unshape the share; second, 
the scales on the anvil will mark the face of the share 
just as bad as the hammer, so nothing is gained by 
this. Place the share on the anvil, face up, and use a 
hammer with a big round face, and when you get used 
to this, the best result is obtained. D n't draw the 
edge out too thin. There is no need of a thin edge on 
a plow that has to cut gravel and snags, but for sod 
breaking a thin edge is wanted, and the smith has to 
use his best judgment even in such a case. 



I08 MODERN BLACKSMITHING 

HOW TO PUT ON A HEEL 

Cut a piece of steel about eight inches long, three 
inches wide on one end, and pointed down to a sharp 
point on the other. Draw out one side thin to noth- 
ing. Next, draw out the heel of the share. Now 
place the heel piece on the bottom side of the share, 
and hold it in place with a pair of tongs and tong rings. 
Take the first heat at the pointed end of the piece, 
next heat at the heel, share down, then turn the share 
over, heel down; go slow, use borax freely, and place 
a little steel borings between the heel piece and the 
share. After a little practice almost any smith ought 
to be able to put on a heel, while now it is only a few 
smiths that can do it. I never put on a heel yet but' 
the owner of the plow would tell me that other smiths 
tell him it cannot be done. When welded good be sure 
to get the right shape in the share. Grind and polish 
carefully, as the dirt is inclined to stick to the share in 
this place more easily than in any other. 



HOW TO REPAIR A FLOPPING PLOW 

When a plow is flopping or going everywhere so that 
the owner don't know what is the matter the fault 
should be looked for first in the beam. If the beam is 
loose the plow will not run steady, but the reason for 
this trouble, in most cases, is in the share. If the 
point has too little "suction," and the edge of the share 
is too much rolling the plow generally acts this way. 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING 109 

To remedy this, sharpen the share, set the point down, 
and the edge of the lay from the point all the way back 
to the heel, and the plow will work right. 



HOW TO SET A PLOW RIGHT THAT TIPS 
ON ONE SIDE 

If a plow is inclined to fall over on the right handle, 
the fault is in the share. The share in such a case has 
too much suction along the edge. Heat the whole 
share and roll the edge of it up and the plow will work 
all right. 

If a plow tips over on the left side handle, the share 
in such a case is too much rolled up. Heat it all over 
and set the edge down to give it more suction. 



WHEN A PLOW RUNS TOO DEEP 

There are two reasons for a plow running too deep: 
I, If the beam is more than fourteen inches high from 
the floor up to the lower side of it, then the beam 
should be heated over a place as far back as possible, 
and the same set down to its proper place. 2, If the 
point of the share has too much suction the plow will 
also run too deep. The right suction to give a 
plowshare is from yi to j\ of an inch. If a plow 
don't run deep enough with this much as a draw, there 
must be something else out of shape ; or, if it goes too 
deep, the fault must be looked for in the beam or in 



no MODERN BLACKSMITHING 

the tugs with small-sized horses. The point of a share 
should never be bent upwards in order to prevent the 
plow from going too deep. Set the share right, and if 
the plow then goes out of its proper way the fault must 
be found somewhere else. 



WHEN A PLOW TAKES TOO MUCH LAND 

If a 14-inch plow takes too much land the fault is 
either in the point of the share or in the beam. The 
point of a share should stand one-eighth of an inch to 
land, and the beam should stand about three inches to 
the right. This will be right for a 14-inch plow and 
two horses. If for a 16- inch plow and three horses, 
the beam should be in line with the landside. , 



HOW TO FIX A GANG PLOW THAT RUNS 
ON ITS NOSE 

When a gang or sulky plow runs on its nose and 
shoves itself through the dirt, the fault is with the 
share or in the beam. In most cases this fault is a set 
back beam, but it might also be the result of a badly- 
bent-down and out-of-shape landside point. If it is ii? 
the beam, ta'ke it out and heat it in the arch, then 
bend it forward until the plow has the right shape, and 
it will run right. 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING m 

HOW TO HARDEN A MOULDBOARD 

To harden a mouldboard is no easy job in a black 
smith's forge, and it is no use trying this in a portable 
forge, because there is not room enough for the fire 
required for this purpose. First, dig the firepot out 
clean, then make a charcoal fire of two bushels of this 
coal, have some dry basswood or wood like it, and 
when the charcoal begins to get red all over then pile 
the wood on the outside corners of the fire. Heat the 
point of the mouldboard first, because this being 
shinned, it is thicker and must be heated first or it will 
not be hot enough ; then hold the mouldboard on the 
fire and pile the wood and hot coal on top of it. Keep 
it only until red hot in the same place, then move it 
around, especially so that the edges get the force of the 
fire, or they will be yet cold while the center might be 
too hot. 



HOW TO PATCH A MOULDBOARD 

When the mouldboard is red hot all over sprinkle 
with prussiate of potash, and plunge into a barrel of 
ice or salt water. A mouldboard will stand a good 
heat if the heat is even; otherwise it will warp or 
crack. Another way to heat a mouldboard: if you 
have a boiler, then fill the fire place with wood and 
heat your mouldboard there. This will give you a 
very good heat. If it is a shinned mouldboard the 
point must be heated first in the forge, then place it 
under the boiler for heating. This must be done to 



112 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING 



insure a good heat on the point, which is thicker than 
the mouldboard and therefore would not be hot enough 
in the time the other parts get hot. 

When a mouldboard is worn out on the point a patch 
can be put on, if the mouldboard is not too much worn 
otherwise. Cut a piece of soft center steel to fit over 
the part to be repaired. Draw this piece out thin 
where it is to be welded to face of mouldboard. Hold 




NO. 2. 



Fig, II 



this piece in position while taking the first weld, with 
a pair of tongs. Weld the point first, then the edges, 
last the center. The patch should be welded to face 
of mouldboard. When the last weld is taken place the 
mouldboard face up, with some live coal over it, in the 
fire ; use borax freely, and, when ready to weld, weld 
the patch while the mouldboard is in the fire, using a 
^ rod of round iron as a hammer with one end of it 
bent for this purpose. When the patch is thus welded 
in its thinnest place then take it out and weld on the 
anvil. In heating for the weld never place the patch 
down towards the tuyer, for there the blast will make 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING 113 

it scale, and it will never weld this way. Remember 
this in all kinds of welding-. 

Figure iiA represents two shares. No. i represents 
a share set for spring- plowing, when the ground is soft. 
Notice the heel of the share following the square for 
about one inch at c, while the heel in No. 2 rests with 
the extreme edge on the square, and is set for fall 
plowing, when the ground is hard. The line between 
a and b shows the suction at d, which is not more than 
an eighth of an inch. Breaking plows and large plows 
which are run shallow should have a wide bearing at c. 
In breaking plows the heel will sometimes have to be 
rolled up a little at this place. 



The reason most men do not accomplish more is because, they 
do not attempt more" 



CHAPTER VII 



mm 



MOWER SECTIONS 

N filling a sickle bar there are two ways to 
remove the old sections. One way is to 
punch the rivets out, but in every case 
where the back of the section sticks out 
over the sickle bar they can be removed 
easier in this way: Just open the vise enough to receive 
the section, then strike with the hammer on the back 
of the section, and this blow will cut the rivets off. 
You can cut out ten to one by this method to any other. 
Sometimes the sickle bar is bent out of shape in the 
fitting. To straighten it place the sickle on the anvil, 
sections down ; now strike with the hammer so that it 
will touch the bar only on one half of its face, the blow 
to be on the inner side of the curve. 



BABBITING 

When a box is to be babbited the first thing to do is 
to clean the box If it can be placed over the fire the 
old babbit with melt out easily. If the box cannot be 
held over the fire, then chisel the old babbit out. At 

114 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING 115 

each end of the box there is a ridge to hold the babbit 
in the box ; that is, in cast iron boxes. On top of this 
ridge place a strip of leather as thick as you want the 
babbit to be. This done, place the shaft in the box. 
Pour the babbit in level with the box. Be careful 
about having the box dry; if any dampness is in the 
box the babbit will explode. Now place a thick paper 
on each side of the box and put on the top box, with 
the bolts in to hold it in place tight, then close up at 
the ends with putty. In some cases it is best to heat 
the box a little, for if the box is cold and there is little 
room for the babbit it will cool off before it can float 
around. In such a case the boxes should be warm and 
the babbit heated to a red heat. Now pour the babbit 
in through the oil hole. 

In cases where there are wooden boxes, and the 
babbit is to reach out against the collars, the shaft 
must be elevated or hung on pieces of boards on each 
side with notches in for the shaft to rest in. Use putty 
to fill up and make tight, so that the babbit must stay 
where wanted. For slow motion babbit with a less- 
cooling percentage (tin) ; for high speed, more -cooling 
(tin). Grooves may be cut in the bottom box for oil. 
When a shaft is to be babbited all around in a solid 
box the shaft is inclined to stick in the babbit. To 
prevent this smoke the shaft a little and have it warm. 
When cool it will come out all right. Or wind thin 
paper around the shaft, the paper to be tied with 
strings to the shaft. 



Il6 MODERN BLACKSMITHING 

ANNEALING 

By gradually heating and cooling steel will be soft= 
ened, brittleness reduced, and flexibility increased. In 
this state steel is tough and easiest drilled or filed. 
Tool steel is sometimes too hard to drill or file without 
first annealing it; and the best way to do this is to 
slowly heat to a red heat, then bury the steel in the 
cinders and let it cool slowly. To heat and let the 
steel cool exposed to the air will do no good, as it cools 
off too quick, and when cool the steel is as hard as 
ever. This is air temper. 



HOW TO REPAIR BROKEN COGS 

Cogs can be inserted in a cogwheel in different ways. 
If the rim of the wheel is thick enough a cog can be 
dovetailed in. That is, cut a slot in the rim from the 
root of the cog down, this slot to be wider at the bot- 
tom. Prepare a cog the exact size of the cogs, but just 
as much deeper as the slot. Before you drive this cog 
in, cut out a chip on each end of the slot, and when the 
cog is driven in you can clinch the ends where you cut" 
out. This will make a strong cog, and if properly 
made will never get loose. 

Another way: If the rim is thin, then make a cog 
with a shank on, or a bolt cog. If the rim is wide 
make two bolts. The cog can be either riveted or 
fastened with nuts. If only one shank is made, the 
same must be square up at the cog, or the cog will 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING II7 

tarn and cause a breakdown. But a shallow slot can 
be cut in the rim to receive and hold the cog, and then 
a bolt shank will hold it in place, whether the shank is 
round or square. 



HOW TO RESTORE OVERHEATED STEEL 

If steel has been burnt the best thing to do is to 
throw it in the scraps; but if overheated it can be 
improved. Heat to a low red heat, and hammer 
lightly and cool off in salt water, while yet hot enough 
to be of a brown color. Repeat this a half a dozen 
times, and the steel will be greatly bettered. Of 
course, this is only in cases when a tool or. something 
like it has been overheated which cannot be thrown 
away without loss. By this simple method I have 
restored tools overheated by ignorant smiths, and in 
some cases the owner would declare that it was "bet- 
ter than ever." 



HOW TO DRESS AND HARDEN STONE 
HAMMERS 

Care must be taken in heating stone hammers not to 
overheat them. Dress the hammer so that the edges 
are a little higher than the center, thus making a slight 
curve. A hammer dressed this way will cut better 
and stay sharp longer than if the face is level. Diess 
both ends before hardening, then harden face end 
first. Heat to a red heat, and cool off in cold water 



Ii8 MODERN BLACKSMITHING 

about one inch up, let the temper return to half an 
inch from the face, that is, draw the temper as much 
as you can without changing the temper at the face. 
There it should be as hard as you can make it. When 
heating the peen end keep a wet rag over the face to 
prevent it from becoming hot. This end should not be 
tempered quite as hard as the face. 



HOW TO DRILL CHILLED CAST IRON 

Chilled cast iron can be easily drilled if properly 
annealed, but it cannot be annealed simply by heating 
and slowly cooling. Heat the iron to a red heat and 
place it over the anvil in a level position ; place a piece 
of biimstone just where the hole is to be drilled, and 
let it soak in. If it is a thick article place a piece on 
each side over the hole, as it will better penetrate and 
soften the iron. Next, heat it again until red, then 
bury it in the cinders, and let it cool slowly. To heat 
and anneal chilled iron is of no avail unless it is allowed 
to remain hot for hours. Chilled iron will, if heated 
and allowed to cool quick, retain its hardness. The 
only way to anneal is to let it remain in the fire for 
hours. Brimstone will help considerably, but even 
with that it is best to let cool as slowly as your time 
will admit. 

HOW TO DRILL HARD STEEL 

First, make your drill of good steel, oval in form, 
and a little heavier than usual on point, and temper as 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING iig 

hard as it will without drawing the temper, the heat to 
be a low red cherry. Diluted muriatic acid is a good 
thing to roughen the surface with where you want the 
hole. Use kerosene instead of oil, or turpentine. The 
, pressure on the drill should be steady so that it will 
cut right along as it is hard to start again if it stops 
cutting, but if it does, again use diluted muriatic acid. 
The hole should be cleaned after the use of the acid. 



FACTS ABOUT STEEL 

I have repeatedly warned against overheating steel. 
Don't heat too fast, for if it is a piece of a large dimen- 
sion the outside corners will be burnt, while the bar is 
yet too cool inside to be worked. Don't let steel 
remain for any length of time in the fire at a high heat, 
for both steel and iron will then become brittle. This 
is supposed by some to be due to the formation of oxide 
disseminated through the mass of the metal, but many 
others believe that a more or less crystalline structure 
is set up under the influence of a softening heat, and is 
the sole cause of the diminution in strength and tenac- 
ity. The fiber of the steel is spoiled through over- 
heating; this can, to some extent, be remedied by 
heavy forging if it is a heavy bar. 

Steel is harder to weld than iron, because it contains 
less cinders and slag, which will produce a fusible fluid 
in iron that will make it weld without trouble. Steel 
contains from 2 to 25 per cent carbon, and varies in 
quality according to the per cent of carbon, and it is 



I30 MODERN BLACKSMITHING 

claimed that there are twenty different kinds of st-eel. 
To blacksmiths only a few kinds are known, and the 
sturdy smith discards both "physical tests and chem- 
ical analysis," and he thinks he knows just as much as 
do those who write volumes about these tests. 

To weld tool steel, or steel of a high per cent of car- 
bon, borax must be used freely to prevent burning and 
promote fusing. Steel with less carbon, or what smiths 
call "soft steel," "sleigh steel," should be welded with 
sand only. This soft steel stands a higher heat than 
the harder kinds. 

Good tool steel will break easy when cold if it is cut 
into a little with a cold chisel all around, and the bar 
then placed with the cut over the hole in the anvil, the 
helper striking directly over the hole. If it is good 
steel it will break easy, and the broken ends are fine 
grain, of a light color. If it shows glistening or glit- 
tering qualities it is a bad sign. 

Good steel will crumble under the hammer when 
white hot. 

To test steel draw out to a sharp point, heat to a red 
heat, cool in salt water; if it cuts glass it is a steel of 
high hardening quality. 

For armor piercing, frogs, tiles, safes, and crushing 
machinery, alloy steel is used. This steel contains 
chromium, manganese or nickel, which renders it 
intensely hard. Tungsten is another alloy that is used 
in iron-cutting tools, because it does not lose its hard- 
ness by friction. Smiths should know more about 
steel than they do, and we would have steel to suit 
every need. As it is now, any poor stuff is sent to the 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING 121 

smith. The same can be said of iron. The American 
wrought iron is the poorest iron that ever got the name 
of iron, but there are thousands of smiths using this 
stuff with great difficulty without ever a word said as a 
protest against the manufacture of the rotten material. 
We often get iron that is too poor to bend hot with- 
out breaking. Let us register a kick, and if that has 
no effect let us try to abolish the tariff, and there will 
be good iron manufactured in this country, or the 
Swedish and Norwegian iron will be used. But the 
result will be the same with iron as with the matches: 
the American manufactories will make good iron when 
they have to. We get iron and steel that is both 
"cold-shot and hot-shot." The former breaks easy 
when cold, the latter when hot. We have meat and 
wheat inspectors; where is the iron inspector? Farm- 
ers know enough to ask for protection, but blacksmiths 
will never say a word. They use the cold-shot or hot- 
shot iron, and when they have spent half a day in com- 
pleting a little intricate work it breaks in their hands 
because of iron that is either cold or hot shot, """nsist 
on good iron, and the steel will also be good. Deduct 
a little every year from the amount due your jobber for 
poor iron, and you can be sure if this is done by a few 
thousand smiths it will have effect. 

HOW TO WELD CAST IRON 

Strictly speaking, there is no such thing as welding 
cast iron. The best that can be done is to melt it 
together; but this is simply accidental work, and when 



122 MODERN BLACKSMITHING 

done don't amount to anything. Still, I have never 
met a blacksmith yet who could not weld cast iron, but, 
at the same time, I have j^et to meet the man that can 
do it; and I will give twenty-five dollars to the smith 
that will give me a receipt for welding cast-iron shoes 
that will be useful when welded. All receipts I have 
seen for this purpose are simply bosh. 

Malleable iron is a different thing. Many smiths 
weld malleable iron and think it is cast iron. "The 
wish," in such a case, "is the father of the thought," 
but to weld malleable iron is not more difficult than to^ 
weld soft steel. Malleable iron when good, and steel 
when soft, are about, the same thing. I would there- 
fore advise smiths to spend no time in welding cast 
iron. Nothing will be gained even if you should suc- 
ceed in sticking it enough to hang together. It will in 
most cases be useless, because it will not be of the 
same shape as before. 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING 



123 



handle is broken use rock 
salt and powdered glass 
as a welding compound. 
Stick the ends together in 
the fire. When they are 
about ready to melt tap 
lightly on one end while 
your helper holds the 
other end steady. In 
one case out of a hun- 
dred it will stick enough 
to hang together. If 
you have nothing else to do this will be a nice thing to 
kill time with 




CASE HARDENING 

Iron and steel may be case hardened with either of 
the following compounds: Prussiate of potash, sal- 
ammoniac of equal parts. Heat the iron red hot and 
sprinkle it with this compound, then heat again and 
sprinkle, and plunge it while yet hot in a bath of salt 
water. 

Another: Cyanide of potassium; grind it into a fine 
powder and sprinkle over the iron while red hot, and 
plunge into a bath of salt water. This powder will 



124 MODERN BLACKSMITHING 

coagulate if it is held against the fire so it gets warm. 
Be careful with this powder, as it is a strong poison. 
It is the best thing that I have ever tried for case hard- 
ening iron. It will case harden the softest iron so that 
it cannot be touched with any tool. It is also good for 
plows, especially where it is hard to make a plow 
scour. The only objection is the price, as it costs more 
than prussiate of potash or other hardening com- 
pounds. 



HOW TO HARDEN SPRINGS 

Heat to a heat that will be discerned in the dark as 
a low red heat. Plunge into a bath of lukewarm 
water. Such a heat cannot be noticed in a light sunny 
day, but it is just the heat required. Of course, it is 
the smith with practice who succeeds, as with every- 
thing else. 

Another way: Heat to a low red heat and bury the 
spring in cold sand. Another : Heat to a low red heat 
in the dark, and cool in oil. 



TO MAKE STEEL AND IRON AS WHITE AS 
SILVER 

Take i pound of ashes from white ash bark, dissolve 
in soft water. Heat your iron red, and cool in this 
solution, and the iron will turn white as silver. 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING 125 

TO MEND BROKEN SAWS 

Silver, 15 parts; copper, 2 parts. These should be 
filed into powder and mixed. Now place your saw 
level with the broken ends tight up against each other; 
put a little of the mixture along the seam, and cover 
with powdered charcoal; with a spirit lamp and a 
blowpipe melt the mixture, then with the hammer set 
the joint smooth. 



TO MEND A BAND SAW 

If a band saw is broken file the ends bevel, and lap 
one end over the other far enough to take up one 
tooth ; place the saw in such a position that the saw 
will be straight when mended; use silver, copper and 
brass; file into a fine powder; place this over the joint 
and cover with borax. Now heat two irons one inch 
square, or a pair of heavy tongs, and place one on each 
side of the joint, and when the powdered metal is 
melted have a pair of tongs ready to take hold over the 
joint with while it cools. File off and smooth the 
sides, not leaving the blade any thicker than in other 
places. 



126 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING 



TO WRITE YOUR NAME ON STEEL 




AKE of nitric 
acid 4 ozs. ; 
muriatic acid, 
. Mix together, 
cover the place 
wish to write on 
beeswax, the 
;eswax to be warm 
when applied. 
When it is cold, 
write your name 
with a sharp instru- 
ment. Be sure to write 
so that the steel is dis- 
cernible in the name. 
Now apply the mixture 
with a feather, well fill- 
ing each letter. Let the 
mixture remain about five 
minutes or more, according 
to the depth desired; then wash off the acid; water 
will stop the process of the same. When the wax is 
removed, the inscription is plain. 



"Ih^ inan who confesses his ignora7ice is on the road to 
wisdovi," 



CHAPTER VIII 



HOW TO PATCH A BOILER 




By H. Moen, Machinist, Cresco, Iowa. 

<^V?HEN the leak or weak place in the 
boiler is found, take a ripping chisel 
and cut out all of the weak, thin and 
cracked parts. This done, make the 
patch. The patch must be large, 
not less than an inch lap on all sides, 
but if double rows of rivets are wanted the lap 
should be two inches on all sides. Bevel or scrape the 
patch on all edges to allow calking. The bolt holes 
should be about two inches apart and countersunk for 
paUli bolts, if patch bolts are used. Next, drill two 
hi'lcs in the boiler shell, one on each side of the patch, 
and put in the bolts. These bolts should be put in to 
sta}' and hold the patch in position while the rest of 
the holes are drilled and bolted. When the bolts are 
all in, take your wrench and tighten the bolts one after 
the other, harder and harder, striking at the same 
time on the patch around its edges. At last strike 
light on the bolt heads when you tighten and draw the 
bolt until its head breaks off. These bolts are made 

127 



128 MODERN BLACKSMITHING 

for this purpose and in such a shape that the head will 
break at a high strain. This done use the calking 
iron all around the patch. 

The patch should be put on the inside of the boiler, 
especially if on the bottom of a horizontal boiler. If 
the patch is put on the outside in this place the sedi- 
ment or solid matter which the water contains will 
quickly fill up over the patch and there is danger of 
overheating the boiler and an explosion may follow. 



HOW TO PUT IN FLUES 

The tools necessary to retube an old boiler are, first, 
a good expander of the proper size ; a roller expander 
preferred ; a crow foot or calking iron, made from good 
tool steel. A cutting-off tool can be made to do very 




TUBE TO BE WELDED 



good service, in the following manner: Take a piece 
of steel, say ^ x i J^, about ten inches long, Draw one 
end out to a sharp point and bend to a right angle of a 
length just enough to let it pass inside of the flue to be 
cut. A gas pipe can be used for a handle. In cutting 
the flues set this tool just inside the flue sheet and 
press down on the handle. If this tool is properly 
made it cuts the old flues out with ease. After both 
ends have been cut the flues will come out. 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING 129 

Next, cut the tubes about ^ of an inch longer than 
the flue sheet. After the tubes are cut the proper 
length, and placed in the boiler, expand the same in 
both ends with a flue expander. After the flues are 
expanded until they fit the holes solid, turn them over 
with the peen of a hammer to make them bell shaped. 
Now take a crows-foot, or calking tool, and turn the 




TUBE EXPANDER 

ends in a uniform head and tight all around. If the 
flues should leak, and there is water on the boiler take 
a boiler expander and tighten them up. But never 
attempt to tighten a flue with the hammer if there is 
water on the boiler. 



HOW TO WELD FLUES 

In welding flues or putting new tips on old flues, you 
must find out how far the old tubes are damaged, and 
cut that part off. Next clean the scales off in a tumb- 
ling box; if you have none, with an old rasp. 

Now take a piece of tubing the size of the old, and 
scarf the ends down thin, the new tube to go over the 
old and drive them together. In welding a rest can be 
made in the forge to push the tube against while weld- 
ing, to prevent the pieces from pulling apart. A 
three-eighths rod, with thread on one end and a head 



I30 MODERN BLACKSMITHING 

on the other, run through the flue will be found handy 
for holding the pipes or flues together. In welding 
these together don't take them out of the fire and 
strike with a hammer, but take a rod ^-inch round, 
and bend one end to serve as a hammer. Strike with 
this hammer lightly over the lap, at the same time 
turning the flue around in the fire. Use borax to pre- 
vent the flue from scaling and burning. 



FOAMING IN BOILERS 

There are many reasons for foaming in boilers, but 
the chief reason is dirty water. In some cases it is 
imperfect construction of boiler, such as insufficient 
room for the steam and a too small steam pipe or dome. 
When a boiler is large enough for the steam and clean 
water is used there is no danger of foaming. When 
more water is evaporated than there is steam room or 
heating surface for, then the boiler will foam. When 
a boiler is overworked more steam than its capacity 
will admit is required, and the engine is run at a high 
speed, the steam will carry with it more water than 
usual. 

When a boiler foams shut the throttle partly to 
check the outflow of steam and lessen the suction of 
water, because the water is sucked up and follows the 
sides of the dome up. 

If the steam pipe in the dome sticks through the 
flange a few inches the water will not escape so easy. 
A boiler that is inclined to foam should not be filled 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING 131 

too full with dirty water; if it is it is best to blow off a 
little. Foul water can be cleaned by different meth- 
ods before it enters the boiler, so as to prevent foam- 
ing and scaling. 



BLOWING OUT THE BOILER 

A boiler should not be blowed out under a high 
steam pressure, because the change is so sudden that 
it has a tendency to contract the iron, and if repeated 
often the boiler will leak. If it is done when there is 
brickwork around the boiler and the same is hot it will 
in a short time ruin the boiler. In such a case the 
boiler should not be blowed out for hours after you 
have ceased firing. 



'A trained man will make his life tell: without training we 

are left on a sea of luck, where thousands go down 

•while one meets with success," — Garfield, 



CHAPTER IX 



THE HORSE 




gj.^. Mi.u^'^ 



■|HE horse must have been one of the 
first animals subjected to the use 
of man, but there is no record made 
of it before the time of Joseph, dur- 
ing the great famine in Egypt, when 
Joseph exchanged bread for horses. 
During the exodus horses were used 
more extensively, and in consequent wars we find the 
horse used especially by great men and heroes. This 
noble animal has always been held in high esteem by 
civilized people. In wars and journeys and exploits, 
as well as for transports, the horse is of immeasurable 
value. No people cared for and loved this animal as 
did the Arabs. The care and breeding of horses was 
their main occupation, therefore their horses were 
noted for intelligence, high speed and endurance. 
The English and American thoroughbred has an 
infusion of blood of the Arab horse, which has set the 
price on these animals. Pedigrees were first estab- 
lished by the Arabs. 

Each country has its own breed of horses. Horses 

132 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING 



^33 



of a cold climate are smaller in size, as also are the 
horses of the tropics. The best horses are found in 
the temperate zone. In Germany the horses are large, 
well formed and strong. Norway and Sweden have a 




Fig. 3. 



race of little horses, and not until a few years ago did 
the people of these countries know anything about 
pedigrees; their horses are spirited and stronger in 
porportion to the size than any other race of horses. 
In Sweden and Norway the farmer, with wife and 
children, will v/alk many miles Sunday to church, 



134 MODERN BLACKSMITHING 

while the horses roam in the pasture or stand in the 
stable. Some farmers will not hire out their team for 
money. The horses of these countries are better taken 




FIG. 51. — TOE AND SIDE WEIGHT AND PLAIN RACING PLATES, AS 
MANUFACTURED BY BRYDEN HORSE SHOE CO. 

care of than anywhere else, of course with the excep- 
tion of American race horses. 

HORSE-SHOEING 

The horse in a wild state needs no shoes, the wear 
and tear that the feet are subjected to while the horse 
is hunting for his food in a wild country on soft mead- 
ows, is just right to keep the hoofs down in a normal 
condition. But when the horse is in bondage and must 
serve as a burden-carrying animal, traveling on hard 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING 135 

roads or paved streets, the horse must be shod to pre- 
vent a foot wear which nature cannot recuperate. 
Horseshoes were first inade of iron in 480 A. D. 
Before that time, and even after, horseshoes have 
been made of leather and other materials. 



FIG. 52. — TOE AND SIDE WEIGHT AND PLAIN RACING PLATES, AS 
MANUFACTURED BY BRYDEN HORSE SHOE CO. 

ANATOMY 

It is necessary in order to be a successful horse-shoer 
to know something about the anatomical construction 
of the feet and legs of the horse. Of course, an}^ little 
boy can learn the names of the bones and tendons in 
a horse's foot in an hour, but this does not make a 
horse-shoer out of him. No boaid of examiners should 



136 MODERN BLACKSMITHING 

allow any horse-shoer to pass an examination merely 
because he can answer the questions put to him in 
regard to the anatomy of the horse, for as I have said 
before, these names are easily learned, but practical 




FIG. 53, — TOE AND SIDE WEIGHT AND PLAIN RACING PLATES, AS 
MANUFACTURED BY BRYDEN HORSE SHOE CO. 

horse-shoeing is not learned in hours ; it takes years of 
study and practice. 

It is not my intention to treat on this subject. I could 
not; first, because there is not room for such a dis- 
course, second, there are numerous books on the sub- 
ject better than I could write, available to every 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING 137 

horse-shoer. I shall only give a few names of such 
parts of the anatomy as is essential to know. What 
the horse-shoer wants to know is the parts of the foot 
connected with the hoof, as his work is confined solely 
to the foot. 




FIG. 54. —TOE AND SIDE WEIGHT AND PLAIN RACING PLATES, AS 
MANUFACTURED BY BRYDEN HORSE SHOE CO. 

THE WALL 

The wall or crust is the horny sheath incasing the 
end of the foot, in the front and on the sides from the 
coronet to the ground. It is through this crust the 
nail is driven, and it is upon this crust the shoe rests. 
In front it is deepest, towards the quarter and heel it 
becomes thinner. It is of equal thickness from the 
upper end to the ground (from top to bottom). The 
white corored wall is the poorest, while the iron col- 
ored wall is the toughest. The growth of the wall is 



138 MODERN BLACKSMITHING 

different at different ages. It grows more in a young 
horse and colt than in an old horse ; in a healthy foot 
and soft, than in a diseased foot and hard. In a young 
horse the hoof will grow about three inches in a year 
and even more, while it grows less in an old horse. 
The wall is fibrous, the fibers going parallel to each 
other from the coronet to the ground. 

THE SOLE 

The horny sole is the bottom of the foot. This sole 
is fibrous like the v/all. The sole is thickest at the 
border, where it connects with the wall, and thinnest 
at the center. The sole when in a healthy condition 
scales off in flakes. This scale is a guide to the farrier 
whereby he can tell how much to pare off. There are 
different opinions in regard to the paring of the sole, 
but that is unnecessary, for nature will tell how much 
to cut off in a healthy foot. In a diseased foot it is 
different ; then the horse-shoer must use his own good 
judgment. It is, however, in very few cases that the 
shoer needs to do more than just clean the sole. 
Nature does the scaling off, or paring business, better 
than any farrier. 

THE FROG 

The frog is situated at the heel and back part of the 
hoof, within the bars; the point extending towards the 
center of the sole, its base filling up the space left 
between the inflection of the wall. This body is also 
fibrous. The frog is very elastic and is evidently 
designed for contact with the ground, and for the pre- 
vention of jars injurious to the limbs. 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING 139 

CORONET 

Coronet is the name of the upper margin of the foot, 
the place where the hair ceases and the horny hoof 
begins. 

THE QUARTER 

The quarter means a place at the bottom of the wall, 
say, about one-third the length from the heel towards 
the toe. 

THE BARS 

By the bars we mean the horny walls on each side of 
the frog, commencing at the heel of the wall and 
extending towards the point of the frog. 

Any blacksmith or horse-shoer desiring to study 
more thoroughly the anatomy of the horse should pro- 
cure a book treating on this subject. 



HOW TO MAKE THE SHOE 

It is only in exceptional cases that the shoer turns or 
makes a shoe. The shoes are now already shaped, 
creased and partly punched, so all that is needed is to 
weld on the toe calk and shape the heel calks. 

Heat the shoe at the toe first, and when hot bend 
the heels together a little. This is done because the 
shoes will spread when the toe calk is welded on, and 
the shoe should not be too wide on the toe, as is mostly 
the case. If the shoe is narrow at the toe it is easier 
to fit the same to the foot and get the shoe to fill out 
on the toe. Many smiths cut too much off from the 



I40 MODERN BLACKSMITHING . 

toe. Before the toe calk is driven onto the shoe bend 
it a little so as to give it the same curve the shoe has, 
and the corners of the calk will not stick out over the 
edge of the shoe. Now place the shoe in the fire, calk 
up. Heat to a good low welding heat, and use sand 
for welding compound. Don't take the shoe out of the 
fire to dip it in the sand, as most shoers do, for you 
will then cool it off by digging in the cold sand, of 
which you will get too much on the inner side of the 
calk. The same will, if allowed to stay, make the calk 
look rough. You will also have to make a new place 
for the shoe in the fire, which will take up a good deal 
of time, as the new place is not at once so hot as the 
place from which the shoe was taken; besides this, 
you might tear the calk off and lose it. When hot 
give a couple of good blows on the calk and then draw 
it out. Don't hold the heels of the shoe too close to 
the anvil when you draw out the calk, for if you do the 
calk will stand under, and it should be at a right angle 
with the shoe. Do not draw it out too long, as is 
mostly done. Punch the hole from the upper side 
first. Many first-class horse-shoers punch only from 
that side, while most shoers punch from both sides. 

There is no need of heating the shoe for punching 
the holes. Punch the holes next to the heel first, for 
if you punch the holes next to the toe when the shoe is 
hot, the punch will be hot, upset and bent. If it is a 
large shoe, punch only two holes on each side for the 
toe calk heat. These holes to be the holes next to the 
toe when the shoe is hot, and then punch the other two 
when you draw out the heel calks, and the shoe is hot 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING 141 

at the heel. The heel calks should be as short as you 
can make them; and so should the toe calks, I know 
but a few horse-shoers that are able to weld on a toe 
calk good. The reason for their inability is lack of 
experience in general blacksmithing. Most shoers 
know not how to make a fire to weld in. They are too 
stingy about the coal; try to weld in dirt and cinders, 
with a low fire, the shoe almost touching the tuyer 
iron. I advise all horse-shoers to read my article 
about the fire. 

I have made a hammer specially for horse-shoeing 
with a peen different from other hammers. With this 
hammer the beginner will have no trouble in drawing 
out the calks. See Figure 8, No. 8. The hammers as 
now used by most smiths are short and clumsy; they 
interfere too much with the air, and give a bump 
instead of a sharp cutting blow that will stick to the 
calk. 

The shoe should be so shaped at the heel as to give 
plenty of room for the frog; the heels to be spread out 
as wide as possible. This is important, for if the shoe 
is wide between the heels the horse will stand more 
firm, and it will be to him a comfortable shoe. The 
shoe should not be wider between the calks at the 
expense of same, as is done by some shoers, for 
this is only a half calk, and the heel is no wider. The 
shoe should not be fitted to the foot when hot, as it 
will injure the hoof if it is burned to the foot. 



142 MODERN BLACKSMITHING 

HOW TO PREPARE THE FOOT FOR THE 

SHOE 

The foot should be level, no matter what the fault is 
with the horse. The hoof should not be cut down 
more than the loose scales will allow. In a healthy- 
condition this scale is a guide. When the foot is dis- 
eased it is different, and the shoer must use his own 
judgment. 




The frog neyer grows too large. It should never be 
trimmed more than just to remove any loose scales. 

The frog in its functions is very important to the 
well-being of the foot. In the unshod foot it projects 
beyond the level of the sole, always in contact with the 
ground; it obviates concussion; supports the tendons; 
prevents falls and contraction. The bars are also of 
importance, bracing the hoof, and should never be cut 
down as has been the practice for centuries by igno- 
rant horse-shoers. 



mode;rn bl,acksmithing 143 

FORGING 

Forging or overreaching is a bad habit, and a horse 
with this fault is now very valuable. This habit can 
be overcome by shoeing; but it will not be done o\ 
making the shoes short on the heel in front and short 
in the toe behind. Never try this foolish method. 

To overcome forging the shoer should know what 
forging is. It is this: The horse breaks over with his 




hind feet quicker than he breaks over with the front 
feet; in other words, he has more action behind than 
in front, and the result is that the hind feet strike the 
front feet before they can get out of the way, often 
cutting the quarters badly, giving rise to quarter cracks 
and horny patches over the heel. 

Some writers make a difference between forging and 
overreaching, but the cause of the trouble is the same 
— too much action behind in proportion to the front: 
and the remedy is the same — retard the action behind, 



144 



MODI^RN BIvACKSMITHING 



increase it in front. There are different ideas aboui 
the remedy for this fault. 

One method is to shoe heavy forward and Hght be- 
hind, but this is in my judgment a poor idea, ahhougl: 
it might help in some cases. Another way is to shoe 




EIGHT Fitting toe tip 



WRONG fitting 



with side weight on the outer side behind, but it is not 
safe, because it is difficult to get a horse to throw the 
foot out to one side enough so as to pass by the front 
foot except in a high trot. 

The best way to shoe a forger or overreaching 
horse is to make a shoe for front of medium heft, not 
longer than just what is needed. The toe calk should 



mode;rn blacksmithing 145 

be at the inner web of the shoe, or no toe calk at all, 
or, toe weight, to make the horse reach farther. 

It will sometimes be fomid that the hind foot is 
shorter than the front foot. To find this out, measure 
from the coronet to the end of the toe. The shorter 
the foot the quicker it breaks over. If it is found that 
the hind foot is shorter than the front foot, then the 
shoe should be made so that it will make up for this. 
Let the shoe stick out on the toe enough to make the 
foot of equal length with the front foot. It is well in 
any case of forging to make the hind shoe longer on 
the toe. If the hind shoe is back on the foot, as is 
often done, it will only make the horse forge all the 
more, for it will increase action behind, the horse 
breaks over quicker, and strikes the front foot before 
it is out of the way. Set the shoe forward as far as 
possible, and make long heels. The longer the shoe is 
behind the longer it takes to raise the foot and break 
over. 

Clack forging is meant by the habit of clacking the 
hind and fore shoes together. This kind of forging is 
not serious or harmful ; it will only tend to wear off the 
toe of the hind foot and annoy the driver, possibly a 
little fatiguing to the horse. 

The position of the feet at the time of c.ie clack is 
different from that it is supposed to be. The toe of 
the hind feet is generally worn off, while no mark is 
made on the front feet. From this you will understand 
that the hind feet never touch the heel of the front 
feet, but the shoe. Just at the moment the fore foot 
is raised up enough on the heel to give room for the 



146 



MODERN BI^ACKSMITHING 



hind foot to wedge in under it the hind foot comes 
flying under the fore foot, and the toe of the hind foot 




strikes the web of the toe on the front foot. This is 
the reason no mark is seen on the front foot, while the 
hind foot is badly worn off. 



INTERFERING 

Interfering is a bad fault in a horse. It is the effect 
of a variety of causes. In interfering the horse brushes 
the foot ^oing forward against the other foot. Some 
horses strike the knee, others above it, the shin or cor- 
onet, but in most cases the fetlock. 

Colts seldom interfere before they are shod, but 
then they sometimes interfere because the shoes are 
too heavy. This trouble disappears as soon as the 
colt is accustomed to carrying the shoes. Weakness is 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING 



147 



the most common cause. Malformation of the fetlock 
is another cause. The turning in or out of the toes, 
giving a swinging motion to the feet, is also conducive 
to interfering. 

The first thing to do is to apply a boot to the place 
that is brushed. Next, proceed to remove the cause 
by shoeing, or by feeding and rest in cases of weak- 
ness. Nothing is better than fiesh to spread the legs 




NATURAL FOOT 



with. Some old horse-shoers in shoeing for interfer- 
ing will turn the feet so as to turn the fetlock out. 
This is done by paring down the outside and leaving 
the inside strong. This is a bad way of shoeing for 
interfering, as it might ruin the horse. The foot 
should be leveled as level as it is possible. The inner 
side of the hoof should be scant ; instead of being 
curved it should be almost straight, as the horse gen- 
erally strikes with the side of the hoof or quarter. 
This is done to make a side-weight shoe, the side 



148 mod]e;rn blacksmithing 

weight not to reach over the center of the shoe, but to 
be only on one side. Put the shoe on with the weight 
on the outer side. If the horse still interferes, give 
more side weight to the shoe, and make the heel on the 
outer side about one and one-quarter inch longer than 
the inside heel ; give it an outward turn. This heel will 
prevent the horse from turning the heel in the way of 
the other foot when it goes by, so as not to strike the fet- 
lock. 

Properly made and applied, side weight will stop in- 
terfering almost every time. If the side weight is heavy 
enough it will throw the foot out, and the trouble is 
overcome. 

There are only a few horse-shoers that have any 
practical experience in making side-weight shoes, 
which we understand from the articles in our trade 
journals. 

Some horse-shoers in shoeing to stop interfering will 
make common shoes, shorter than they ouglU to be and 
set them far in under the foot, so that the hoof on the 
inner side will stick out over the shoe a quarter of an 
incho These they don't rasp off, and everybody knows 
that the hoof adheres to and rubs harder against the 
leg than the hard smooth shoe. But, foolish as it is, 
such shoers stick to their foolish ideas. I call all such 
fads faith cures. 

The rule is to have the side weight on the outer side, 
while the exception is to have the side weight on the 
inner side of the foot. For old and poor horses ground 
feed and rest is better than any kind of shoes. It will 
^We more strength and more flesh to spread the legs. 



"Knoivlcdgc is of tzvo kinds; zvc know a thing ourselves, or we 

knoxv where zve can find infonnation upon 

it." — Dr. Samuel Johnson. 



CHAPTER X 



HOW TO SHOE A KNEESPRUNG 
KNUCKLER 



OR 




NEESPRUNG is the result of disease that 
sometimes is brought about by bad shoe- 
ing". In a heaUhy leg the center of gravity 
is down through the center of the leg and 
out at the heels. This is changed in a case of 
kneesprung legs, giving the legs a bowed ap- 
pearance. This trouble always comes on gradually ; in 
some cases it will stop and never get worse, while in oth- 
ers it will keep on until it renders the horse useless. A 
horse with straight legs will sleep standing, but a knuckler 
cannot; he will fall as soon as he goes to sleep, on 
account of the center of gravity being thrown on a line 
forward of the suspensory ligaments. The cause of 
this trouble is sprain or injury to the back tendons of 
the legs ; soreness of the feet, shins or joints. In old 
cases nothing can be done but just to relieve the strain 
a little by shoeing with a long shoe and high heel 
calks, with no toe calk. In cases not more than three 
months old clip the hair off the back tendons when 
there is any soreness, and shower them with cold water 

149 



5.^,G 



MODERN BI.ACKSMITHING 



several times a clay for a week oi two, and then turn 
the horse out for a long run in the pasture. 



CONTRACTION 
Contraction is in itself no original disease, except in 
a few cases. It is mostly the effect of some disease. 





FOOT PREPARED FOR CH ARTIER TIP FOOT SHOD WITH CHARTiER TIP 

Contraction follows sprains of the tendons, corns, 
founder and navicular disease. When contraction is 
the result of a long-standing disease of the foot or leg 
it will be in only one of the feet, because the horse will 
rest the affected leg and stand most of the time on the 
healthy leg; thus the healthy foot receives more pres- 
sure than the diseased, and is spread out more ; the 
foot becomes much uneven — they don't look like mates. 
This kind of contraction is generally the result of some 
chronic disease, but in most cases contraction is the 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING 



151 



result of shoeing and artificial living. Before the colt 
is shod his hoofs are large and open-heeled, the quar- 
ters are spread out wide, and the foot on the under side 
is shaped like a saucer. The reason of the colt's foot 
being so large is that he has been running on the 
green and moist turf, without shoes, and the feet have 
in walking in mud and dampness gathered so much 
moisture that they are growing and spreading at every 





JBaaity cottlrmcted ^»t. 



step. This is changed when the colt is shod and put 
on hard roads, or taken from the pasture and put on 
hard floors where the feet become hard and dried up. 
A strong high heeled foot is predisposed to contrac- 
tion, while a low heeled flat foot is seldom afflicted with 
this trouble. 

When contraction comes from bad shoeing or from 
standing on hard floors, pull the shoes ofl^, pare down 
the foot as much as you can, leaving the frog as large 
as it is. Rub in some hoof ointment once a dav at the 



152 mode:rn blacksmithing 

coronet and quarters, and turn the horse out in a wet 
pasture. But if the horse must be used on the road, 
proceed to shoe as follows : First, ascertain if the frog 
is hard or soft. If soft, put on a bar slioe with open 
bar. I have invented a shoe for this purpose. See 
Fig. 2, No. I. The idea of shoeing with an endless 
bar shoe is wrong. In most cases contraction is 
brought on by letting the shoes stay on too long, 
whereby the hoof has been compelled to grow down 




with the shape of the shoe. If an open shoe has 
helped to bring on contraction, much more so will a 
bar shoe, which will tie the hoof to the shoe with no 
chance of spreading, no matter what frog pressure is 
put on. Make the shoe as light as you can, with very 
low or no calks ; let the bar rest against the frog ; keep 
the hoofs moist with hoof ointment; use an open bar 
shoe. 

Make a low box and fill it with wet manure, mud or 
^lay, and let the horse stand in it when convenient, to 
soften the hoofs. Spread the shoe a little every week 
to help the hoofs out, or the shoes will prevent what 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING 153 

the frog pressure aims to do, but this spreading must 
be done with care. If the frog is dried up and hard, 
don't put on a bar shoe, as it will do more harm than 
good. In such a case make a common shoe with low 
or no calks ; make holes in it as far back as you can 
nail ; spread them with care a little every week. Let 
the horse stand in a box with mud or manure, even 
warm water, for a few hours at a time, and keep the 
hoofs moist with hoof ointment. In either case do not 
let the shoe stay on longer than four weeks at a time. 
In addition to the above pack the feet with some wet 
packing, or a sponge can be applied to the feet and 
held in position by some of the many inventions for this 
purpose. 

No man can comprehend how much a horse suffers 
from contraction when his feet are hoof-bound and 
pressed together as if they were in a vise. The pain 
from a pair of hard and tight boots on a man are noth- 
ing compared to the agony endured by this noble and 
silent sufferer. It must be remembered that there is 
no such a thing as shoeing for contraction. Contrac- 
tion is brought on by artificial living and shoeing. A 
bar shoe for contraction is the most foolish thing to 
imagine. The pressure intended on the frog is a dead 
pressure, and in a few days it w'ill settle itself so that 
there is no pressure at all. If a bar shoe is to be used 
it must be an open bar shoe like the one referred to. 
This shoe will give a live pressure, and if made of 
stell will spring up against the frog at every step and 
It can be spread. I will say, however, that I don't 
recommend spreading, for it will part if not done with 



154 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING 



care. It is better to drive the shoe on with only four 
or five nails, and set them over often. Contraction never 




Fort^rm 



JCiieei 



Splint bone..„.... 
Cannon ione.^- 




iiffument. f 






affects the hind feet because of the moisture they re- 
ceive. This should suggest to ever shoer that moisture 
is better than shoes. 



mode;rn blacksmithing 155 

CORNS 

Corns are very common to horses' feet, a majority of 
all cases of lameness is due to this trouble. 

Corns are the result of shoes being allowed to stay 
on too long. The shoe, in such a case grows under 
the foot and presses on the sole and corns are formed. 
Even pressure of the shoe and sometimes too heavy 
bearing on the heel causes corns. Gravel wedging in 
under the shoe or between the bar and the wall is some- 
times the cause of corns. Leaving the heel and quar- 
ters too high, whereby they will bend under and press 
against the sole, is another cause of corns. 

The seat of corns is generally in the sole of the foot 
at the quarter or heels between the bar and the wall, 
at the angle made by the wall and bar. 

Anything that will bruise the underlying and sensi- 
tive membrane of the sole will produce corn. This 
bruise gives rise to soreness, the sole becomes blood 
colored and reddish ; if bad it might break out, either 
at the bottom or the junction of the hoof and hair or 
coronet, forming a quittor. 

Cut out the corn or red sole clear down. If the 
corn is the result of contraction pare down the hoof 
and sole, put the foot into linseed poultice that is 
warm, for twenty-four hours, then renew it. If the 
corn is deep, be sure to cut down enough to let the 
matter out. It is a good thing to pour into the hole 
hot pine tar. In shoeing the bearing should be taken 
off the quarter or from the wall over the corn by rasp- 
ing it down so that it will not touch the shoe. A bar 



156 



mode;rn blacksmithing 



shoe is a good thing as it will not spring as much as to 
come in contact with the hoof over the corn. Give very 
little frog pressure. An open shoe can be used and in 





The clamp anii ital/ retnedies 



^fctiial /Atckiiess 
ofwaus of'/ioo/l 




(h/orfercmclcwiffy crasscut: 



such a case there should be no calk at the heel. A calk 
should be welded on directly over the corn and the shoe 
will not spring up against the wall. 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING 



157 



QUARTER AND SAND CRACKS 

Quarter and sand cracks are cracks in the hoof, 
iisually running lengthwise of the fibers, but some- 
times thev will be running across the fiber for an inch 




7be cracU WaUremcved to show 
abtarbtiin efcfffftn Jii>ne. 




Saad Crack Clamp. 




Ovc^ec^ ITaUs. 



One effect of Ouar-ta-Crack. 



or more. Quarter cracks are cracks mostly on the 
inside of the hoof, because that side is thinner and 
weaker than the outside. The cause of it is a hard 
and brittle hoof with no elasticity, brought on by poor 
assimilation and a want of good nutrition to the hoof. 
Hot, sandy or hard roads are also conducive to these 
cracks. What to do: If the horse is shod remove the 
shoes, and cut off the wall of the quarter to take off 



158 MODERN BIvACKSMlTHING 

Lhe bearing on both sides of the crack. If the crack 
goes up to the coronet and is deep, cut off both sides 
of the crack the whole length. About one inch below 
the coronet, cut a deep cut clear through either with a 
knife or hot sharp iron across the crack. This will 
help to start a new hoof. 

If the flesh sticks up between the cracks, let a veter- 
inarian burn it off. In shoeing for this trouble, it is 
best to use a bar shoe (endless) and shoe the horse 
often. 



SEEDY TOE 

When shoes with a clip or a cap on the toe are used 
it sometimes happens that the toe is bruised and it 
starts a dry rot extending up between the wall and the 
laminje. Remove the shoe, pare away the hoof at the 
toe so as to take away the bearing from the toe. Any 
white or meaty substance should be picked out. Apply 
hot pine tar into the hole, and dip a little wad of tow 
in the hole to fill up. Replace the shoe, but don't let 
the clip touch the wall. 



PRICKING 

Pricking often happens in shoeing from a nail run- 
ning into the quick, but the horse is often pricked by 
stepping on a nail or anything that will penetrate the 
sole and run into the quick. If the horse is pricked by 
shoeing pull off the shoes and examine each nail, the 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING Ij'' 

nail which has gone into the quick is wet and of a blut 
color. 

If it is a bad case the sole or wall must be cut down 
to let the matter out and the foot put into a boot of 
linseed poultice. In milder cases a little pine tar put 
into the hole will be enough. 



STIFLED. 

Mistakes are often made by inexperienced men and 
horse-shoers when a case of this kind is to be treated, 
and I would advise every horse-shoer to call in a 
veterinarian when he gets a case of this kind. Cramps 
of the muscles cf the thighs are sometimes taken for 
stifle. 

When stifle appears in an old horse, three ounces of 
lead through his brain is the best, but for a young horse 
a cruel method of shoeing might be tried. Make a shoe 
with heels three inches high, or a shoe with cross bands 
as shown in illustration, Figure 8, No. 2, for stifle shoe. 
This shoe must be placed on the well foot. The idea is 
to have the horse stand on the stifled leg until the muscles 
and cords are relaxed. 



STRING HALT 

String halt or spring halt is a kind of aflfection of 
the hind legs, occasioning a sudden jerk of the legs 
upward towards the belly. Sometimes only one leg is 
affected. 



l6o MODERN BLACKSMITHING 

In some cases it is milder, in others more severe. 
In some cases it is difficult to start the horse. He will 
jerk up on one leg and then on the other, but when 
started will go along all right. 

For this fault there is no cure because it is a nervous 
affection. If there is any local disorder it is best to 
treat this, as it might alleviate the jerk. For the jerk 
itself bathe the hind quarters once a day with cold wa- 
ter. If this don't help try warm water, once a day for 
two weeks. Rub the quarters dry after bathing. 



HOW TO SHOE A KICKING HORSE 

Many devices are now gotten up for shoeing kicking 
horses. It is no use for a man to wrestle with a horse, 
and every horse-shoer should try to find out the best way 
to handle vicious horses. 

One simple way, which will answer in most cases, is 
to put a twist on one of the horse's Hps or on one ear. 
To make a twist, take a piece of broom handle tv/c 
feet long, bore a half-inch hole in one end and put a 
piece of a clothes line through so as to make a loop six 
inches in diameter. 

Another way: Make a leather strap with a ring in, 
put this strap around the foot of the horse; in the ring 
of the strap tie a rope. Now braid or tie a ring in the 
horse's tail and run the rope through this ring and 
back through the ring in the strap, then pull the foot 
'^p. See Fig. 1 6. The front foot can be held up by 
this device also, by simply buckling the strap to the 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING 



l6l 



foot and throwing the strap up over the neck of the 
horse. 

Shoeing stalls are also used, but they are yet too 
expensive for small shops. 

No horse-shoer should lose his temper in handling a 
nervous horse and abuse the animal ; for, in nine cases 
out of ten, will hard treatment make the horse worse, 
and many horse owners would rather be hit themselves 
than to have anybody hit their horse. 




EASY POSITION FOR FINISHING 



Don't curse. Be cool, use a little patience, and you 
will, in most cases, succeed. To a nervous horse you 
should talk gently, as >ou would to a scared child. 
The horse is the noblest and most useful animal to 



1 62 



M0DE;RN BLACKSMITHING 



man, but is often maltreated and abused. Amongst 
our dumb friends, the horse is the best, but few recognize 
this fact. 



HOW TO SHOE A TROTTER 

In shoeing a trotter it is no use to follow a certain 
rule for the angle, because the angle must vary a little 
in proportion to the different shape of the horse's foot. 



VttteaMMMMmmmmmatMUttMM 




Every owner of a trotter will test the speed by hav- 
ing shoes in different shapes and sizes, as well as 
having the feet trimmed at different angles, and when 
the angle is found that will give the best results the 
owner will keep a record of the same and give the horse- 
shoer directions and points in each case. 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING I63 

The average weight of a horse-shoe should be eight 
ounces. Remember this is for a trotter. Make the 
shoe fit to the edges of the wall so that there will be 
no rasping done on the outside. In farm and draft 
horses this is impossible, as there is hardly a foot of 
such a uniform shape but what some has to be rasped 
oiT. 

Use No. 4 nails, or No. 5. 

Don't rasp under the clinches of the nails. 

Make the shoes the shape of No. i, Figure 8. 



HOW TO SHOE A HORSE WITH POOR OR BRIT- 
TLE HOOFS 

Sometimes it is diflficult to shoe so as to make the 
shoe stay on on account of poor and brittle hoofs. In 
such a case the shoe should be fitted snug. Make a shoe 
with a toe clip. 



HOW TO SHOE A WEAK-HEELED HORSE. 

In weak heels the hoof is found to be low and thin 
from the quarters back. The balls are soft and 
tender. The shoes should not touch the hoof from the 
quarters back to the heels. An endless bar shoe is 
often the best thing for this trouble, giving some frog 
pressure to help relieve the pressure against the heels. 



164 MODERN BLACKSMITHING 

FOUNDER 

Founder is a disease manifested by fever in the feet 
in different degrees from a simple congestion to a 
severe inflammation. It is mostly exhibited in the 
fore feet, being uncommon in the hind feet. The 
reason for this is the harder pressure, a much greater 
amount of weight coming on the front feet, the strain 
and pressure on the soft tissues heavier. The disease 
is either acute or chronic, in one foot or both. When 
both feet are diseased the horse will put both feet for- 
ward and rest upon the heels so as to relieve the pres- 
sure of the foot. If only one foot is affected that foot 
is put forward and sometimes kept in continual motion, 
indicating severe pain. The foot is hot, especially around 
the coronary band. The disease, if not checked, will ren- 
der the horse useless. When such a horse is brought to 
you for shoeing it would be best to send him to a vet- 
erinarian. 

How to shoe: Let the horse stand in a warm mud 
puddle for six hours, then put on rubber pads or com- 
mon shoes with feet between the web of the shoe and 
the hoof, with sharp calks to take up the jar. It would 
be best not to shoe at all, but let the horse loose in a wet 
pasture for a good while. 



"A righteous man regardeth the life of his beast." — Solomon. 



CHAPTER XI 




,_,^ N this chapter the author desires to give some 
B!^ hints about the treatment for diseases most 
C common to horses. 



COLIC 

There are two kinds of coUc, spasmodic and 
flatulent. 

Spasmodic coHc is known by the pains and cramps be- 
ing spasmodic, in which there are moments of rehef and 
the horse is quiet. 

Flatulent colic is known by bloating symptoms and the 
pain is continual, the horse kicks, paws, tries to roll and 
lie on his back. 

For spasmodic colic give ^ ounce laudanum, ]/2 
pint whisky, ^ pint water; mix well and give in one 
does. If this does not help, repeat the dose in half an 
hour. 

For flatulent colic give 3^ ounce laudanum, J/2 ounce 
turpentine, ^ pint raw linseed oil, J4 ounce chloro- 
form, 5^ pint water. Mix well and give in one dose. 
Repeat in one hour if the pain is not relieved. 

165 



l66 MODERN BLACKSMITHING 

BOTS 

Sometimes there is no other symptom than the bots 
seen in the dung, and in most cases no other treatment 
is needed than some purgative. 

MANGE 

Mange is a disease of the skin due to a class of 
insects that burrow in the skin, producing a terrible 
itch and scab, the hair falling off in patches, and the 
horse rubs against everything. After the affected parts 
have been washed in soap-water quite warm, dry and rub 
in the following: 4 ounces oil of tar, 6 ounces sulphur, 
I pint linseed oil. 

LICE 

Make a strong tea of tobacco and wash the horse 
with it. 

WORMS 

There are many kinds of worms. Three kinds of 
tape worms and seven kinds of other worms have been 
found in the horse. The tape worms are very seldom 
found in a horse and the other kinds are easily treated 
by the following: One dram of calomel, i dram of 
tartar emetic, i dram of sulphate of iron, 3 drams of 
linseed meal. Mix and give in one dose for a few 
days ; then give a purgative. Repeat in three weeks to. 
get rid of the young worms left in the bowels in the form 
of eggs, but which have since hatched out. 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING 167 

DISTEMPER • 

Distemper is a disease of the blood. The symptoms 
are: Swelling under the jaws; inability to swallow, 
a mucous discharge from the nose. 

Give the horse a dry and warm place and nourishing 
^T)d. Apply hot linseed poultice to the swellings under 
the jaws and give small doses of cleansing powder for a 
few days. 

HYDROPHOBIA 

As soon as a case is satisfactorily recognized, kill the 
horse, as there is no remedy yet discovered that will cure 
this terrible disease. 

SPAVIN 

There are four kinds of spavin and it is difficult for 
any one but a veterinarian to tell one kind from 
another. In all cases of spavin (except blood spavin) 
the horse will start lame, but after he gets warmed up 
the lameness disappears and he goes all right until 
stopped and cooled off, when he starts worse than 
before. 

There are many so-called spavin cures on the mar- 
ket, some of them good, others worse than nothing. 
If you don't want to call a veterinarian, I would advise 
you to use "Kendall's Spavin Cure." This cure is 
one of the best ever gotten up for this disease, and no 
bad results will follow the use of it if it does not cure. 
It is for sale by most druggists. 



i68 



MODERN BI^ACKSMITHING 



In nearly all cases of lameness in the hind leg the 
seat of the disease will be found to be in the hock- 
joint, although many persons (not having had expe- 
rience) locate the difficulty in the hip, simply because 
they cannot detect any swelling of the hock-joint; but 





'^arr'n 



in many of the worst cases there is not seen any swell- 
ing or enlargement for a long time, and perhaps 
never. 



BONE SPAVIN 

Bone spavin is a growth of irregular bony matter from 
the bones of the joint, and situated on the inside and in 
front of the joint. 

Cause. — The causes of spavins are quite numerous, 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING 169 

but usually they are sprains, blows, hard work, and, in 
fact, any cause exciting inflammation of this part of 
the joint. Hereditary predisposition in horses is a fre- 
quent cause. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms vary in different cases. 
In some horses the lameness comes on very gradually, 
while in others it comes on more rapidly. It is usually 
five to eight weeks before any enlargement appears. 
There is marked lameness when the horse starts out, 
but he usually gets over it after driving a short dis- 
tance, and, if allowed to stand for awhile, will start 
lame again. 

There is sometimes a reflected action, causing a little 
difference in the appearance over the hip joint, and if 
no enlargement has made its appearance, a person not 
having had experience is very liable to be deceived in 
regard to the true location of the difficulty. The horse 
will stand on either leg in resting in the stable, but 
when he is resting the lame leg he stands on the toe. 

If the joint becomes consolidated the horse will be 
stiff in the leg, but may not have much pain. 

Treatment. — That it may not be misunderstood in re- 
gard to what is meant by a cure, would say that to stop 
the lameness, and in most cases to remove the bunch on 
such cases as are not past any reasonable hopes of a 
cure. 

But I do not mean to be understood that in a case of 
anchylosis (stiff joint), I can again restore the joint to 
its original condition ; for this is an impossibility, 
owing to the union of the two bones, making them as 
one. Neither do I mean that, in any ordinary case of 



lyo 



mode;rn blacksmithing 



bone spavin which has become completely ossified (that 
is, the bunch become solid bone), that, in such a case, the 
enlargement will be removed. 

In any bony growths, like spavin or ringbone, it will 
be exceedingly difficult to determine just when there is 
a sufficient deposit of phosphate of lime so that it is 
completely ossified, for the reason that in some cases 




Cu/tI) 



Spavin. 



the lime is deposited faster than in others, and therefore 
one case may be completely ossified in a few months, 
while in another it will be as many years. 

The cases which are not completely ossified are those 
that I claim to remove. One of this class which I have 
seen removed was a large bone spavin of four or five 
years standing, and I think that a large per cent of 
cases are not fully ossified for several months or years. 

I am well aware that many good horsemen say that 
it is impossible to cure spavins, and, in fact, this has 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING I, 

been the experience of horsemen until the discovery of 
Kendall's Spavin Cure. It is now known that the 
treatment which we recommend here will cure nearly 
every case of bone spavin which is not past any reason- 
able hopes of a cure, if the directions are followed, and 
the horse is properly used. 

OCCULT SPAVIN 

This is similar to bone spavin in its nature, the 
difference being that the location is within the joint, 
so that no enlargement is seen, which makes it more 
difficult to come to a definite conclusion as to its loca- 
tion, and consequently the horse is oftentimes blistered 
and tormented in nearly all parts of the leg but in the 
right place. 

The causes and effects are the same as in bone spavin, 
and it should be treated in the same way. 

These cases are often mistaken for hip disease, be- 
cause no enlargement can be seen. 

BOG SPAVIN 

The location of this kind of a spavin is more in front 
of the hock-joint than that of bone spavin, and it is a 
soft and yet firm swelling. It does not generally cause 
lameness. 

BLOOD SPAVIN 

This is similar to bog spavin but more extended, and 
generally involves the front, inside and outside of the 
joint, giving it a rounded appearance. The swelling 



172 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING 



is soft and fluctuating. Young horses and colts, es- 
pecially if driven or worked hard, are more liable to have 
this form of spavin than older horses. 




Jpavuts 
Bone 
Spayvu 



SPLINT 

This is a small, bony enlargement, and generally sit- 
uated on the inside of the fofeleg about three or four 
inches below the knee joint, and occurs frequently in 
young horses when they are worked too hard. 



SPRAIN 

By this is meant the sudden shifting of a joint farther 
than is natural, but not so as to produce dislocation. 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING 173 

Every joint is liable to sprain by the horse's falling, 
slipping, or being overworked. These cases cause a 
great deal of trouble, oftentimes producing lameness, 
pain, swelling, tenderness, and an unusual amount of heat 
in the part. 

Treatment. — Entire rest should be given the horse, 
and if the part is found hot, as is usually the case, apply 
cold water cloths, changing frequently, for from one 
to three days until the heat has subsided, when apply 
Kendall's Spavin Cure, twice or three times a day, rub- 
bing well with the hand. 

If the fever is considerable, it might be well to give 
fifteen drops of tincture of aconite root, three times a 
day, for one or two days, while the cold water cloths 
are being appUed. Allow the horse a rest of a few 
weeks, especially in bad cases, as it is very difficult to 
cure some of these cases, unless the horse is allowed to 
rest. 



STAGGERS 

A disease of horses, resulting from some lesion of 
the brain, which causes a loss of control of voluntary 
motion. As it generally occurs in fat horses which 
are well fed, those subject to these attacks should not 
be overfed. The cause is an undue amount of blood 
flowing to the brain. 

Treatment. — The aim of the treatment should be to 
remove the cause. In ordinary cases give half a 
pound of epsom salts, and repeat if necessary to have 
it physic, and be careful about overfeeding. 



174 MODERN BIvACKSMlTHING 

In mad staggers, it would be well to bleed from the 
neck in addition to giving the epsom salts. 

CERTAIN CURE FOR HOG CHOLERA 

Take the following ingredients well mixed together, 
and give one tablespoonful daily in food during sick- 
ness, and as a preventative two or three times a week ; 

Powdered charcoal i pound 

" mandrake 2 " 

resin i " 

" saltpeter 8 ounces 

madder 8 " 

" bi-carbonate of soda 6 pounds 

TENSILE STRENGTH OF IRON AND OTHER 
MATERIALS 

Pounds required to tear asunder a rod one inch 
square : 

Cast steel 145,000 

Soft steel 1 15,000 

Swedish iron \ 85,000 

American iron 60,000 

Russian iron 62,000 

Wrought wire 98,000 

Cast iron, best 45,ooo 

Cast iron, poor 14,000 

Silver • 40,000 

Gold 21,000 

Whalebone 8,000 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING 175 

Bone 8,000 

Tin 5,000 

Zinc . . 3,000 

Platinum 40,000 

Boiler plates 50,000 

Leather belt (lin. ) 350 

Rope (manila) 10,000 

Hemp (tarred) 14,000 

Brass 40,000 



HOW CORN IN THE CRIB AND HAY IN 
THE MOW SHOULD BE MEASURED 

As near as can be figured out, two cubic feet of corn 
in the ear will make one bushel shelled. To find the 
quantity of corn in the crib, measure length, breadth 
and height, multiply the breadth by the length and 
this product by the height; then divide this product by 
two, and you have the right number of bushels of corn. 

It is estimated that 510 cubic feet of hay in a mow 
will make one ton. Multiply the length by the breadth 
and the product by the height; divide this product by 
510, and the quotient shows the tons of hay in the 
mow. 

GRAIN SHRINKAGE 

Not often do the farmers gain any by keeping the 
grain, for it will shrink more than the price will make 
good. Wheat will shrink 7 per cent in seven months 
from the time is is thrashed. Therefore, 93 cents a 
bushel for wheat in September is better than $1 in 



I 



176 MODERN BLACKSMITHING 

April the following year. Add to this the interest for 
the money you could have used in paying debts, or 
loaned, and it will add 4 per cent more, making it 1 1 
per cent. 

Corn will shrink more than wheat, and potatoes are 
very risky to keep on account of the diseases they are 
subjected to ; the loss is estimated at 30 per cent for 
six months. 



VALUE OF A TON OF GOLD OR SILVER 

A ton of gold is worth in money $602,799.21 ; a ton 
of silver, $37,704.84. 



AGES OF ANIMALS 

Years. 

Elephant i to 400 

Whale 100 

Swan 250 

Eagle 100 

Raven no 

Stag 50 

Lion 75 

Mule 75 

Horse 30 

Ox 30 

Goose 75 

Hawk 35 

Crane 24 

Skylark 20 

Crocodile 100 

Tortoise 150 

Cow 20 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING I?/ 

Deer „ 20 

Wolf 20 

Swine 20 

Dog , 12 

Hare .... 8 

Squirrel 7 

Titlark 5 

Queen bee 4 

Working bee 6 months 



RINGWORM 

Ringworm is a contagious disease and attacks all 
kinds of animals, but it often arises from poverty and 
filth. It first appears in a round bald spot, the scurf 
coming off in scales. 

Cure: Wash with soap-water and dry, then apply 
the following once a day. Mix 25 grains of corrosive 
sublimate in half a pint of water and wash once a day 
till cured. 

BALKING 

Balking is the result of abuse. If a horse is over- 
loaded and then whipped unmercifully to make the 
victim perform impossibilities, he will resent the abuse 
by balking. 

There are many cruel methods for curing balking 
horses, but kindness is the best. Don't hitch him to 
a load he cannot easily pull. Let the man that is used 
to handling him drive him. Try to divert his mind fiom 



178 MODERN BLACKSMITHING 

himself. Talk to him ; pat him ; give him a handful 
of oats or salt. But if there is no time to wait pass a 
chain or rope around his neck and pull him along with 
another horse. This done once all there is needed, in 
most cases, is to pass the rope around and the horse 
will start. It is no use trying to whip a balking horse, 
because balking horses are generally horses of more 
than common spirit and determination, and they will 
resent abuse every time. Kindness, patience and 
perseverance are the best remedies. 

RATTLE-SNAKE BITE 

When a horse has been bitten by a rattlesnake, 
copperhead, or other venomous serpent, give the fol- 
lowing: One-half teaspoonful of hartshorn, i pint 
whisky, ^ pint of warm water. Mix well and give 
one dose. Repeat in one hour if not relieved. Burn 
the wound at once with a hot iron, and keep a sponge 
soaked in ammonia over the wound for a couple of 
hours. 

HOOF OINTMENT 

Rosin, 4 ounces; bees wax, 4 ounces; pine tar, 4 
ounces; fish oil, 4 ounces; mutton tallow, 4 ounces. 
Mix and apply once a day. 

PURGATIVE 

Aloes, 3 drams; gamboge, 2 drams; ginger, 1 dram; 
gentian, i dram; molasses, enough to combine the 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING 179 

above. Give in one dose, prepared in the form of a 
ball. 



HINTS TO BLACKSMITHS AND HORSE- 
SHOERS 

Don't burn the shoe on. 

Don't rasp under the clinchers. 

Don't rasp on the outer side of the wall more than 
is absolutely necessary. 

Don't rasp or file the clinch heads. 

Don't make the shoes too short. Don't make high 
calks. Don't pare the frog. 

Don't cut down the bars. Don't load the horse 
down with iron. 

Don't lose your temper. Don't hit the horse with 
the hammer. 

Don't run down your competitor. Don't continually 
tell how smart you are. 

Don't smoke while shoeing. Don't imbibe in the 
shop. Don't run outdoors while sweaty. Don't know 
it all. Always be punctual in attendance to your 
business. Allow your customers to know something. 
No man is such a great fool but that something can 
be learned of him. 

Be always polite. Keep posted on everything 
belonging to your trade. Read much. Drink little. 
Take a bath once a week. Dress well. This done, 
the craft will be elevated, and the man respected. 



tSo 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING 



ADVICE TO HORSE OWNERS 




T is cruelty to ani- 
mals to raise a colt 
and not train him 
for shoeing, and 
the horse - shoer 
must suffer for this 
neglect also. Many a valuable horse 
has been crippled or maltreated, and 
thousands of horse - shoers suffer 
hardships, and many are crippled, 
and a few killed every year for the horse owner's care- 
lessness in this matter. A law should be enacted 
making the owner of an ill-bred horse responsible for 
the damage done to the horse-shoer by such an animal. 
Every horse-raiser should begin while the colt is only 
a few days old to drill him for the shoeing. . The feet 
should be taken, one after the other, and held in the 
same position as a horse-shoer does, a light hammer or 
even the fist will do, to tap on the foot with, and the 
feet should be handled and manipulated in the same 
manner the horse-shoer does when shoeing. This 
practice should be kept up and repeated at least once 
a week and the colt when brought to the shop for 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING i8i 

shoeing will suffer no inconvenience. The horse- 
shoer's temper, as well as muscles, will be spared and 
a good feeling all around prevails. 
Horse-raisers, remember this, 

ADVICE TO YOUNG MEN 

In every profession and trade it is a common thing 
to hear beginners say; I know, I know. No matter 
what you tell them, they will always answer, I know. 
Such an answer is never given by an old, learned or 
experienced man, because, as we grow older and wiser 
we know that there is no such thing as knowing it all. 
Besides this we know that there might be a better way 
than the way we have learned of doing the work. It 
is only in few cases that we can say that this is the 
best way, therefore we should never say, I know: first, 
because no young man ever had an experience wide 
enough to cover the whole thing; second, it is neither 
sensible nor polite. Better not say anything, but 
simply do what you have been told to do. 

Every young man thinks, of course, that he has 
learned from the best men. This is selfish and foolish. 
You may have learned from the biggest botch in the 
country. Besides this, no matter how clever your 
master was, there will be things that somebody else 
has a better way of doing. I have heard an old good 
blacksmith say, that he had never had a helper but 
what he learned some good points from him. 

Don't think it is a shame, or anything against you, 
to learn. We will all learn as long as we live, unless 



i82 MODERN BLACKSMITHING 

we are fools, because fools learn very little. Better to 
assume less than you know than to assume more. 

Thousands of journeymen go idle because many a 
master would rather hire a greenhorn than hire a 
"knowing-it-all" fellow. Don't make yourself obnox- 
ious by always telling how j'^our boss used to do this or 
that. You may have learned it in the best way possi- 
ble, but you may also have learned it in the most 
awkward way. First find our what your master 
wants, then do it, remembering there are sometimes 
many ways to accomplish the same thing. Don't be 
stubborn. Many mechanics are so stubborn that they 
will never change their ways of doing things, nor 
improve on either tools or ideas. 

Don't be a one-idea man; and remember the maxim, 
"A wise man changes his mind, a fool never." 

Be always punctual, have the same interest in doing 
good work and in drawing customers as you would 
were the business yours. Be always polite to the 
customers, no matter what happens. Never lose your 
temper or use profane language. Don't tell your 
master's competitors his way of doing business, or 
what is going on in his dealings with people. You are 
taking his money for your service, serve as you would 
be served, 

IRON CEMENT 

A cement for stopping clefts or fissure of iron vessels 
can be made of the following: Two ounces muriate 
of ammonia, i ounce of flowers of sulphur, and i 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING 183 

pound of cast-iron filings or borings. Mix these well 
in a mortar, but keep the mortar dry. When the 
cement is wanted, take one part of this and twenty 
parts of clean iron borings, grind together in a mortar. 
Mix water to make a dough of proper consistence and 
apply between the cracks. This will be useful for 
flanges or joints of pipes and doors of steam engines. 



HOW TO RUN A TURNING LATHE 

(By a student of James College of Mechanic Arts, at 
Ames, Iowa.) 

Lathes, when first invented, were very rude affairs, 
but they, like all other machinery, have experienced 
improvement from year to year until now some of them 
are more complicated than a watch, and for that 
reason should receive the best of care. They should 
be kept clean and v^ell oiled. While being used the 
dust and shavings should be cleaned off at least every 
night, and every half day is better. 

When they are kept in a dusty place, as is very often 
the case in a general repair shop, they should be kept 
covered while not in use. Some cheap canvas makes 
a good cover. 

Every person who intends running a lathe should 
first become acquainted with his machine; become 
familiar with all the combinations that can be made, so 
that when a piece of work comes in to be done he will 
know just how to arrange the lathe to do that work. 
For instance, a piece of work needs to be turned taper- 



i84 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING 



ing-; this is done by shifting the tail stock to one side. 
Or there are threads to be cut; know just how to 
arrange the lathe to cut any number of threads to the 
inch. 

Next to care of lathe comes care of tools. When 
there are a few minutes spare time see that the tools 





are sharp. Keep them sharp. They will do the work 
better, faster and with m.uch less strain on the machine. 
All cutting tools should be made diamond shape, 
with either one side or the other, depending on the 
way the carrier is to move, made a little higher ; the 
right side being highest when the carrier is moving to 
the right, and vice versa. The sharp edge of smooth- 
ing tools is made square across, like a plane bit, and 
thread-cutting tools should be made the same shape as 
the thread to be cut. 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING 185 

Water or oil should be kept on the iron or steel that 
is being turned. It keeps the point of the tool from 
getting hot when heavy chips are taken, and it makes 
a smoother job when the smoothing tool is used. 
There is no need to use either water or oil when turn- 
ing cast iron. 

The tempering of lathe tools is a very particular 
piece of work, varying considerable with the kind of 
steel used and the nature of the work to be done. For 
slow heavy turning the tool must not be too hard, else 
it would break ; while for light swift turning it should 
be quite hard. For water tempering the temper color 
varies from a dark blue to a very light straw color, 
depending, as I have said before, on the nature of the 
work to be done. 

By way of illustration of a piece of work that repre- 
sents a number of lathe combinations, I will take the 
fitting of a saw shaft for our common wood saws. First 
place the balance wheel in the lathe chuck, being sure 
to get it in the center, so that when the hole is drilled 
in the wheel it will be in the exact center. Take a 
drill a sixteenth of an inch smaller than the hole to be 
made, and drill out the hole. Use the inside boring 
tool to make the hole the desired size. Turn a smooth 
face on the hub of the wheel where it comes against 
the box ; then the wheel is ready for the key seat. To 
cut the key seat in the wheel use a key-seat chisel the 
same size as the milling wheel used to cut the key seat 
in the shaft. 

Next take one of the saw collars; put it in the chuck, 
being careful to get this in the center also, with the 



i86 MODERN BLACKSMITHING 

widest side next the chuck, and drill a hole in it the 
.same size as the hole in the saw. Turn off the end of 
the collar lo get it square. Prepare the other collar in 
the same way. 

Now cut the shaft off the length wanted, and turn 
one end to fit tightly into the balance wheel. Turn 
off a place next to where the wheel comes for the bear- 
ing or box. Now turn the shaft around and fit the 
other end for the collars. The collar that goes on the 
inside or side next the bearing should be shruink on. 
To do this leave the shaft about one sixty-fourth of an 
inch larger than the hole in the collar, then heat the 
collar to a red heat, and slip it onto the shaft. It 
should not be driven very hard, or it will break in cool- 
ing. Let it cool of its own accord. When nearly cool 
it can be put into water and cooled off. 

The next step is to true up the inside of the collar, 
leaving about one inch of surface to come against the 
saw. Now turn the shaft down to the size wanted for 
the thread, either i-inch or i^-inch, then with a cut- 
off tool about ^-inch wide, cut in next the shoulder 
the depth of the thread. If there is a die and tap handy 
that will be the quickest way to cut the thread, but if 
not handy then use the lathe. Now screw the nut on 
and turn off the inside of the nut. For fitting the loose 
collar there should be on hand a shaft about 14 or 16 
inches long, turned a very little tapering ; then drive 
the collar onto this shaft and finish it up. When ready 
put this collar into place on the saw shaft and screw 
the nut up tight. Now smooth off the outside of the 
collars for loops. Cut the key seat in the shaft and 



t 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING 187 

key the balance wheel on solid, being careful to get 
the distance between the wheel and the saw collar the 
exact distance between the outside of the boxes. 



HOW TO BALANCE A PULLEY 

When a pulley or balance wheel is to be balanced 
you must first have a shaft that is of the same size as 
the hole in the pulley. Of course, the wheel or pulley 
must be turned and trued up so that it is finished 
before you balance the same. 

After the shaft has been put in and tightened, place 
two pieces of angle iron or T-iron about two feet long 
parallel on a pair of wooden horses. The irons must 
be level. Now place the pulley between the irons so 
that the shaft will have a chance to roll on the "T" or 
angle iron, and you will notice that the heaviest side of 
the pulley will be down. Start it rolling, and the 
pulley will always stop with the heaviest side down. 
Now, if the pulley or wheel, as the case may be, has a 
thick rim, then bore out from the heaviest side enough 
to balance, or you can drill a hole in the lightest side 
and bolt a piece of iron to it just heavy enough to bal- 
ance the wheel. 



HOW TO PUT IN A WOODEN AXLE 

One of the most difficult pieces of work to do in a 
wagon shop is to put in a wooden axle. 

In the first place, you must have well-seasoned tim- 



j88 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING 



ber, hickory or maple. Take out the old axle. The 
skeins will come off easy by heating them a little. 
Now cut the timber the exact length of the broken 
axle. In order to get the right pitch and gather, you 
must cut off one-half inch from the back side of the 
end of the timber and one-half inch from the bottom 
side, this cut to run out at the inner end or collar of 
the skein, as shown in Figure 14. Next take dividers 
and make a circle in the end of the axle the size of the 
old axle — in case new skein is put on, the size of the 



O 



bottom of the skein inside. This circle must be made 
so that the lower side of it will go down to edge of the 
timber, and the sides be of the same distance from the 
edges. You will now notice that most of the hewing 
will be done on top side, as it must in order to get the 
right pitch, and as one-half inch has been cut from the 
back side it will throw the front side of the wheel in a 
little; this is gather. If awheel has no gather the 
wheel will be spread out against the nut of the skein, 
and the wear will be in that direction, and the wheel 
will rattle, as you know the skein is tapered ; but if the 
wheel has gather, the pressure will be against the col- 
lar of the skein, and the wheel will be tight, as it forces 
itself up against the collar and the wider end of the 
skein. 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING 189 

Some wagon-makers will use the old axle as a guide 
and cut the new by the old. This is not safe, as the 
old is mostly sprung out of shape. 

In hewing the axle for the skein great care should be 
taken not to cut off too much ; better go slow, because 
it depends upon the fitting of the skein to get a good 
job. When the axle is finished or ready to be driven 
into the skein be sure to have the axle strong; that is, 
a little too large to go in easy. Now warm — or heat, 
if you will — the skein a little, not so much that it will 
burn, and drive it onto its place by a mallet. In mak- 
ing new wagons I think it would be wise to paint the 
part of the axle that goes in the skein, but in repairing 
I deem it unwise, because it will have a tendency to 
work loose unless it will have time to dry before using, 
and I have noticed paint to be still fresh in the skein 
after years of use. There should be no gap left 
between the collar of the skein and the axle, as water 
will run in and rot the timber. 



190 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING 



HOW TO PUT IN SPOKES 




^fVERY wagon-maker is supposed to know 
how to put in spokes. Still, there are 
sometimes wagon - makers, especially 
beginners, that don't know. First 
clean out the sliver left of the old 
spoke, and make the mortise dry, and 
in every case use glue. In a buggy 
wheel take the rivet or rivets out, if there is any, and 
be sure to have the right shape of the tenon to fit the 
mortise in the hub, so as to make the spoke stand 
plumb. Set the tenon going through the rim. Be 
sure to have this tenon reach through. This is impor- 
tant in filling a wagon wheel, because, if the tenons 
don't reach through the fellow, then the heft will rest 
against the shoulder of the tenon, and when the tire is 
put on tight and the wagon used in wet roads, the 
fellow will soften and the spokes settle into the rim. 
The tire gets loose, and some one, either the wagon- 
maker or the blacksmith, will be blamed — in most 
cases the blacksmith. Of course, the tenon should not 
be above the rim. After the spokes have been put in 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING 



19? 



rivet the flange of the hub, or so many rivets as you 
have taken out. This should always be done before 
the tire is set. 




192 



MODERK BLACKSMITHING 



WEIGHT OF ONE FOOT IN LENGTH OP 
SQUARE AND ROUND BAR IRON 



Size. 


Square. 


Round. 


Size. 


Square. 


Round. 


% 


.209 


.164 


2^ 


15.000 


11.840 


A 


.326 


.256 


2^ 


16.900 


13.280 


^8 


.469 


.368 


2^ 


18.835 


14.792 


A 


.638 


• 504 


2>^ 


20.871 


16.392 


% 


.833 


•654 


2/8 


23.112 


18.142 


9 
If 


1-057 


.831 


2% 


25.250 


19.840 


5/8 


1-305 


1.025 


2^ 


27.600 


21.681 


1 1 
Iff 


1.579 


I. 241 


3 


30-065 


23.650 


% 


1-875 


1-473 


z'A 


32.610 


25-615 


\\ 


2.201 


1.728 


zVa 


35-270 


27.702 


n 


2-552 


2.004 


33/8 


38.040 


29.875 


il 


2.930 


2.301 


3>^ 


40.900 


32. 160 


I 


3-340 


2.625 


35/8 


43.860 


34-470 


I>^ 


4.222 


3-320 


zy^ 


46.960 


36.890 


'^ 


5-215 


4.098 


zVs 


50.150 


39-390 


I^ 


6.310 


4.960 


4 


53-435 


41.980 


I^ 


7.508 


5.900 


4^ 


60.320 


47-380 


If^ 


8.810 


6,920 


aV^ 


67-635 


53.130 


I^ 


10.200 


8.040 


4^ 


75-350 


59-185 


I^ 


11.740 


9.222 


5 


83505 


65585 


2 


13-300 


10.490 


6 


120.240 


94.608 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING 



193 



WEIGHTS OF ONE LINEAL FOOT OF FLAT 
BAR IRON 



Thick- 


Width, 


Width, 


Width, 


Width. 


ness. 


I. 


iX- 


iJ^- 


^%. 


^ 


.416 


.521 


.624 


.728 


3 
Iff 


.635 


.780 


•938 


1.090 


% 


•Hi 


1.040 


1.250 


1. 46 1 


tV 


1. 04 1 


1. 301 


1.560 


1. 821 


3/8 


1.252 


1.562 


1. 881 


3. 190 


I'ff 


1.462 


1.822 


2. 191 


2550 


V2 


1-675 


2.085 


2.505 


2-925 


A 


1.884 


2-345 


2.815 


3-285 


5/8 


2.085 


2.605 


3.132 


3655 


H 


2.295 


2.860 


3.442 


4 010 


y^ 


2.502 


3.131 


3.752 


4-381 


/8 


2.921 


3.650 


4-382 


5.100 


I 


3331 


4.170 


5-005 


5-832 


I>^ 


3-75° 


4-694 


5.630 


6.560 


x^ 


4175 


5.210 


6.251 


7.290 


I^ 


4.580 


5.728 


6.879 


8.022 


I^ 


5005 


6.248 


7.502 


8-750 


I 54 


5-425 


6.769 


8.130 


9.480 


XM 


5-832 


7.289 


8.749 


10.208 


I^ 


6 248 


7.800 


9.380 


10.938 


a 


6.675 


8 332 


10.005 


11.675 



194 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING 



WEIGHTS OF ONE LINEAL FOOT OF FLAT 
BAR IRON 



(Continued) 



Thick- 


Width, 


Width, 


Width, 


Width, 


ness. 


2. 


2X- 


2K- 


2%. 


/8 


.832 


9.370 


1.040 


1. 151 


h 


1-251 


1. 410 


1.562 


1.720 


% 


1-675 


1.878 


2.080 


2.290 


tV 


2.081 


2.342 


2.000 


2.862 


M 


2.502 


2. 811 


3-135 


3-445 


A 


2.920 


3.278 


3.650 


4.010 


y^ 


3-335 


3-748 


4-175 


4.580 


tV 


3-748 


4.220 


4.089 


5.160 


^8 


4.168 


4.690 


5. 211 


5-730 


H 


4-578 


5.160 


5-735 


6,150 


% 


5-005 


5-630 


6.255 


6.880 


^ 


5-830 


6.558 


7-395 


8.025 


I 


6.668 


7.500 


8-332 


9.170 


i>^ 


7.498 


8.441 


9.382 


10.310 


^Va 


8-333 


9.382 


10.421 


11.460 


l3/8 


9-775 


10.310 


11.460 


12.605 


^% 


10.000 


11-255 


12.505 


^3-750 


1^ 


10.835 


12. 190 


13-545 


14.905 


1% 


11.675 


13-135 


14.585 


16.045 


I^ 


12.505 


14.065 


15-635 


17-195 


2 


13-335 


15.000 


16.675 


18.335 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING 



195 



WEIGHTS OF ONE LINEAL FOOT OF FLAT 
BAR IRON 



{Contimied) 



Thick- 


Width, 


Width, 


Width, 


Width, 


ness. 


3. 


3)4' 


3H^ 


3^- 


}^ 


1.250 


1-350 


1.465 


1.658 


h 


1.879 


2-035 


2-195 


2-345 


% 


2-505 


2.710 


2.925 


3.135 


6 


3- 1 35 


3-391 


3.650 


3.901 


'^^ 


3-750 


4.060 


4.380 


4-695 


tV 


4-385 


4.740 


5.105 


5.470 


V^ 


5.000 


5-425 


5.832 


6.250 


A 


5-635 


6.090 


6.565 


7.030 


5/8 


6.255 


6.775 


7.290 


7.805 


\\ 


6.885 


7.455 


8.020 


8.590 


Ya 


7.500 


8.135 


8.750 


9.380 


n ' 


8-750 


9.480 


10.210 


10.940 


I 


10.000 


10.835 


11.675 


12.500 


i}i 


11-255 


12. 190 


13.135 


14.065 


^% 


12.505 


13.540 


14-585 


15.635 


i^ 


13.750 


14.905 


16.045 


17.195 


^% 


15.000 


16.250 


17.500 


18.750 


iy& 


16.255 


17.605 


18.960 


20.310 


iM 


17.505 


18.965 


20.425 


21.880 


iji 


18.750 


20.305 


21.885 


23-445 


a 


20.000 


21.670 


23-335 


25.000 



iq6 



MODERN BLACKSMITHING 



WEIGHTS OF ONE LINEAL FOOT OF FLAT 
BAR IRON 







[Continued) 




Thick- 


Width, 


Width, 


Width, 


Width, 


ness. 


4- 


4X- 


A'A- 


A^A- 


/8 


1.670 


1.774 


1.887 


1.989 


t\ 


2 500 


2.658 


2.811 


2.971 


% 


3-331 


3-538 


3.750 


3.960 


h 


4.168 


4-430 


4.689 


4-950 


3/8 


5.000 


5-3" 


5.630 


5-940 


1^6 


5-831 


6.200 


6.560 


6.930 


% 


6.670 


7.082 


7.502 


7-925 


l\ 


7.500 


7-965 


8.435 


8.910 


S/8 


8.330 


,8.855 


9.380 


9.900 


H 


9.165 


9.740 


10.310 


10.890 


% 


10.000 


10.630 


11.250 


11.880 


n 


11.670 


12.400 


13.140 


13-845 


I 


13.340 


14.165 


15.000 


15-830 


i}i 


15.000 


15-940 


16.880 


17.815 


^Va 


16.660 


17.710 


18.755 


19-179 


iVs 


18.335 


19.480 


20.650 


21 770 


I>^ 


20.000 


21.255 


22.505 


23.750 


iVs 


21.675 


23.025 


24.380 


25.730 


^Va 


23.335 


24.790 


26.240 


27.710 


iji 


25.000 


26.560 


28.140 


29.000 


2 


26.670 


28.335 


30. 000 


31.670 



INDEX. 



PAGE 

Advice to Horse Owners 180 

- Advice to Young Men 181 

Anatomy of the Horse 135 

Annealing 116 

Anvil, The 33 

' Axle Gauge 85 

Axes and Hatchets 67 

Babbitting 114 

Bands or Hoops 57 

Back Dished Wheel 75 

Belts, Points on 65 

•Blacksmith's Tongs 39 

Blowers 54 

Blowing out the Boiler 131 

Bob Shoes ^& 

Case Hardening 123 

Coal Box, The 34 

Cold Chisels 43 

Drilling Iron 68 

Expansion of the Tire 83 

197 



198 INDEX. 

PAGE, 

Fire, Tne = . . . . 50 

Forge, The 33 

Forging 143 

Foaming in Boilers 130 

Gather Gauge 85 

Grain Shrinkage 175 

Hammer, The 35 

Hints to Blacksmiths 179 

Hints to Horseshoers 179 

Horse, The 132 

Horseshoeing 134 

How to Measure Corn in the Crib and Hay in the Mow 175 

How to Make a Landside 88 

How to Harden Springs 124 

How to Weld Cast Iron 121 

How to Repair Broken Iron Pump Handles 123 

How to Repair Broken Cogs 116 

How to Restore Overheated Steel 117 

How to Dress and Harden Stone Hammers 117 

How to Drill Chilled Cast Iron 118 

How to Drill Hard Steel 118 

How to Make Steel and Iron as White as Silver 124 

How to Mend Broken Saws 125 

How to Mend a Band Saw 125 

How to Write Your Name on Steel 126 

How to Patch a Boiler 127 

How to Put in Flues 128 

How to Weld Flues , 129 

How to Make the Shoe 139 

How to Prepare the Foot for the Shoe 142 



INDEX. 199 

PAGE. 

How to Shoe a Kicking Horse 160 

How to Shoe a Trotter „ 162 

How to Shoe a Horse with Brittle Hoofs 163 

How to Shoe a Weak Heeled Horse 163 

How to Shoe a Knee Sprung or Knuckler, . , 149 

How to Run a Lathe 183 

How to Balance a Pulley ,„.,..., 187 

How to Put in a Wooden Axle 187 

How to Put in Spokes 190 

How to Strike and Turn the Iron 49 

How to Make a Hammer 41 

How to Make Chisels » 43 

How to Harden Files 62 

How to Harden Taps and Dies 62 

How to Make Butcher Knives 63 

How to Repair Cracked Circular Saws 63 

How to Prevent a Circular Saw from Cracking 64 

How to Sew a Belt 64 

How to Drill Chilled Iron 59 

How to Make Plowshares « 88 

How to Put on New Tire , . . » , . . 76 

How to Weld Tires 77 

How to Harden a Plowshare 103 

How to Point a Share ... ..... . 104 

How to Sharpen a Plowshare 107 

How to Put on a Heel .. 108 

(How to Repair a Flopping Plow. 108 

jHow to Set a Plow Right 109 

How to Correct Plow from Running too Deep 109 

How to Fix a Gang Plow that Runs on Its Nose .... 110 



2t<) INDEX. 

PAGE. 

How to Harden a Mouldboard Ill 

How to Patch a Mouldboard o...... Ill 

Incompetency 17 

Interfering o . . . . 146 

Intemperance 14 

Iron Cement „ 182 

Landside Point for Slipshare 92 

Literature » 27 

Mill Picks 61 

Modern Guild 19 

Mower Sections , 114 

Religion 16 

Rock Drills 47 

Rules for Smith and Helper. " 49 

Setting Tire , 72 

Seeder Shovels 57 

Set Hammer , 44 

Shoe, Right Fitting 144 

Shoe, Wrong Fitting .... 144 

Shop, The 31 

Sledge, The 36 

Slipshare 99 

Smith, The . 9 

Split Welds. . 56 

Standing Coulters 59 

Steel, Facts about 119 

S Wrench 47 

Taxation 21 

Tensile Strength of Iron and other Materials 174 



INDEX. 201 

PAGE, 

Tire in Sections 82 

Toe Tips 144 

Tools, Granite 69 

Tool Table 34 

Tuyer Iron 52 

Twist Drills 45 

Vehicles 71 

Wagon Making 71 

Water Tuyer 53 

Welding Axles 84 

Welding Steel 56 

Welding Iron 55 

Weight of One Foot in Length of Square and Round 

Bar Iron 192 

Well Drills 68 

Diseases of the Horse 165 

Bots 166 

Mange 166 

Lice 166 

Worms 166 

Distemper 167 

Hydrophobia 167 

Spavin 167 

Bone Spavin 168 

Occult Spavin 171 

Ages of Animals 176 

Ring Worms , 177 

Balking , 177 

Founder 164 



202 INDEX, 

PAQX. 

Hoof Ointment 178 

Purgative 178 

Horse, The Wall 137 

Horse, The Sole 138 

Horse, The Frog 138 

Horse, The Coronet „ 139 

Horse, The Quarter 139 

Horse, The Bars 139 

Contraction 150 

Corns 155 

Quarter and Sand Cracks 157 

Seedy Toe 158 

Pricking 158 

Stifled 159 

String Halt 159 

Bog Spavin 171 

Blood Spavin 171 

Splint o 172 

Sprain , 172 

Staggers „ 173 

Hog Cholera, Cure for 174 



TWENTIETH CENTURY 

TOOLSMITH 

AND 

STEELWORKER 



PREFACE 



This book is written in the interests of all mechanics 
connected with the working and manufacture of steel 
into tools, and gives all the secrets and obstacles to be 
overcome towards making steelwork or toolmaking a 
success. It will be invaluable to the young mechanic 
and place him years in advance of his fellow workman, 
by the reading and a little reflection of its contents. 

It is not comprised of quack theories or foolish ideas, 
and is not written by a college student, who knows 
nothing except what he has been told or gathered up 
from papers and periodicals. But is written by a thor- 
ough expert mechanic who has spent the best part of 
his life over the anvil with the hammer and tongs and 
making tools of every description, from steel of every 
quality and temper and almost every brand or make, 
and the contents of this book are the results of hard 
work, deep study, years of experimenting and wide 
travel. The information given is of a simple, practical, 
and scientific nature, which can be easily understood 
and everything accomplished by a mechanic of average 
intelligence. 

It gives full and complete instructions with illustra- 

3 



4 PREFACE 

tions, how to forge, weld, anneal, harden and temper, 
every tool that the toolsmith or toolmaker is called 
upon to make or repair, and if the directions are fol- 
lowed closely, this book will be the means of lifting a 
great many out of a rut of darkness and place them on 
the road of sunshine to mechanical success, as this in- 
formation could not be gained in a lifetime in the ordi- 
nary blacksmith shop or from the steel manufacturer. 



CONTENTS. 



Introduction o Pages 11 to 14 

CHAPTER I. 

Steel, its use and necessity in all arts, trades and profes- 
sions — The composition of cast tool steel — The suc- 
cessful treatment of steel — Heating — Forging — Ham- 
mering — Hardening — The hardening bath — Quench- 
ing — Tempering — Welding — Annealmg — Differ- 
ent kinds of steel — The cracking of tools when hard- 
enmg and the cause — How to judge hard from soft 
steel — How to tell good from poor steel — Testing 
steel after hardening, with a file — Instructions on 

toolmaking that have to be given many times 

Pages 15 to 31 

CHAPTER 11. 

The blacksmith's fire — Bellows and blowers — The anvil — 
Tongs — Fullers and swages — Flatters and set ham- 
mer — The hammer — Making and dressing a hand 
hammer — Haraening and tempering a hammer — Suc- 
cessful points to be remembered in making and tem- 
pering a hammer — Punching holes in steel . Pages 32 to 55 

CHAPTER III. 

The cold chisel — The hardy — Heavy hot, cold and rail- 
road chisels — Drills and drilling — Making a flat drill 
—Hand made twist drills — Making a twist reamer. . 

Pages 56 to 72 
5 



CONTENTS 



CHAPTER IV. 



How to draw out, harden and temper an axe that will 
cleave a hemlock knot — Mill picks — Butcher knives — 
How to make gun, revolver, trap and all fine springs 
— Dirt picks — Laying dirt picks Pages 73 to 89 



CHAPTER V. 

Machinists tools — Air hardening steel for lathe and planer 
tools — How to anneal air hardening steel — Milling. 
cutters — The use of asbestos and clay when harden- 
ing milling cutters and other tools — Hardening hol- 
low tools — The hardening and tempering of hob 
taps, stay bolt taps ana similar tools — Heating fur- 
naces — Heated lead for hardening purposes — Boiler- 
makers' tools — The beading tool — Punches and dies 
— Flue expanders — Drifts, rivet snaps, calkmg tools 
and chisels — Hardening shear blades Pages 90 to 115 



CHAPTER VI. 

Woodworkers' and carpenters' tools — Laying a carpenter's 
chisel — The screw driver — How to make a draw 
knife Pages 116 to 121 



CHAPTER VIL 

Granite cutters' tools — The granite drill — ^Bull sets and 
bull chisels — The granite bush hammer — The granite 
hammer — Granite cutters' mash hammer — The granite 
tool sharpeners' hammer and anvil stake — Marble 
cutters' tools Pages 122 to 130 



CONTENTS 7 

CHAPTER VIII. 

Limestone cutters' tools — Plain and tooth chisels and 
points — Pitching tool — Hand and ball drills — The 
tooth axe — The limestone bush hammer — Sandstone 
cutters' tools — Stone carvers' tools — Polishing board 
for stonecutters' tools — How to forge mallet head 
tools — Punching teeth in stone cutters' tools — Lathe 
and planer tools for cutting soft stone — Dressing 
tools with the cutting edge bevelled from one side 
only Pages 131 to 145 



CHAPTER IX. 

The stonemason's hammer — Miners' tools — Correct and 
incorrect shapes of miners' hand drills — The cross or 
machine drill — The wreaking of drills when drilling 
and the cause — The rock cutting reamer — Well drills 

Pages 146 to 153 

CHAPTER X. 

Horseshoer's tools — How to make and dress a pair of 
pincers — Making a clinch cutter — How to make a 
horseshoer's knife — How to dress a vise — Sharpen- 
ing plow shares — How to make square holes in plow 
shares Page 154 to 162 



CHAPTER XI. 

I 
How to make a harnessmaker's knife — How to make a 
butcher's steel — Hardening tools with five projections 
— The butcher's cleaver — How to dress a railroad 

pinch bar — The spike maul — The claw bar 

Pages 163 to 173 



8 CONTENTS 

CHAPTER XII. 

The bricklayer's set — How to harden and temper wire 
nippers or pliers — How to make a razor — To make 
a scraper — Hardening jaw of pipe vise — Hardening 
and tempering blacksmith's bolt clipper — Tools for 
punching or gumming cross-cut saws — The scratch- 
awl — Hardening and tempering circular blades of 
pipe cutter — Hardening a tool according to its shape 
— Making, hardening and tempermg an alligator pipe 
wrench — Hardening and tempering pruning shear 
blades — The center punch — The nail set — Hardening 
and tempering steel stamps — Making a gouge — 
Hardening and tempering carpenters' augurs that 

have come through a fire — Case hardening 

Pages 174 to 187 

CHAPTER XIII. 

The correct meaning of a cherry red heat — Heating to 
harden according to the size of the tool — Charcoal 
for heating steel — The sealing of steel after harden- 
ing — Quality and quantity — Quick methods of work- 
ing — Cracks in steel — Slighting tools — The result of 
being a successful steelworker — Hardening tools that 
are forged by another mechanic — Sayings and ideas 
of mechanics in reference to steel — Why some tools 
are soft when put into use — Reasons why tools break 
when in use — Necessary tools — Welding compounds 
— Hardening compounds — How to determine the tem- 
per of tools — Overheating tools — Cuttmg steel when 
cold — Oil tempering — Drawing the temper over the 
open or blacksmith's fire — More points on hammer- 
ing steel — How to improve — The blacksmith's helper 
— The danger of heating more of a tool when dress- 
ing, than what is to be forged or hammered — Harden- 
ing very small or thin tools — More information about 



CONTENTS 9 

cold chisels — The different degrees of temperature 
Fahrenheit required to equal the various colors when 
drawing the temper m hot air or oil — Table of ordi- 
nary tools made from cast steel, arranged alphabeti- 
cally, giving the color of temper and about the per- 
centage of carbon the steel should contain to give the 
best results — Table of tools continued, which are 
partly or wholly hardened but have no temper drawn 
— Working steel at night — A few words in reference 
to burnt steel — Conclusion Pages 188 to 229 

Useful Formulas Pages 230 to 240 



INTRODUCTION 



In introducing this book to my readers and brother 
mechanics, it has long been my aim to bring this volume 
of information before the steelworkers and toolmakers 
in general and to present it in a clear simple way that 
the average mechanic will quite readily understand. 
Although there are other books written and published 
on this great subject of steelworking, the information 
which they contain is not expressed in a clear light that 
is beneficial to the ordinary reader, for unless the 
reader is already an expert steelworker the book is not 
easily understood without a great deal of thought and 
study, as some authors oppose their own ideas, others 
again do not take up the entire subject and the in- 
formation which is most profitable to the young me- 
chanic and also which is most impressive on his mind 
is left unwritten. 

But this book which is entitled. The 20th Century 
Toolsmith and Steelworker, will give fully all the in- 
formation and knowledge of working steel in a clear 
light so that the young mechanic or apprentice will 
readily improve, if he will but read. The methods given 
and used as regards the working of steel, are of the 
most modern, simple, practical, and scientific nature, 

H 



12 INTRODUCTION 

while the instructions are from the experience of a suc- 
cessful steelworker of good reputation, and who has 
spent years in hard work, ranging in extent from the 
humble country blacksmith shop to the largest and best 
railroad, locomotive and machine shops, also stone 
yards, quarries and mines of North America, which is 
the only correct way of gathering together the vast 
amount of knowledge contained in these pages and 
which has cost the author thousands of dollars in wide 
travel and collecting valuable ideas from some of the 
greatest living mechanics and steelworkers that Amer- 
ica has produced. 

Although this book is chiefly intended for black- 
smiths, toolsmiths and tooldressers, it will be found in- 
valuable to every mechanic connected directly or indi- 
rectly with the repair and manufacture of steel into 
tools, and if the directions are followed closely, the 
amateur steelworker will become an expert of the high- 
est degree, as there is nothing mentioned, but that 
which has been accomplished by the author and proven 
by experiment to be the greatest success. 

This book is not merely written for the young me- 
chanic or apprentice, but likewise for the old, and it 
does not signify if the reader has worked over the anvil 
for forty years, there is information that will help him 
overcome difficulties and obstacles connected with steel. 

Although the instructions given are principally in 
reference to heating steel in the blacksmiths or open 
fire and which is mostly used, this book gives informa- 



INTRODUCTION 13 

tion concerning heating and tempering furnaces. But, 
it should be remembered that if a mechanic can work 
steel by heating it successfully in the open fire, he will 
experience very little trouble when heating steel in a 
furnace or lead bath as used in large and up-to-date 
toolshops and factories. 

I wish to say to all mechanics young and old but 
more so to the young mechanics who have a desire to 
reach the top of the ladder and gain a good reputation, 
and especially to those who chance to get a copy of this 
book, that the greatest obstacle they have to contend 
with when trying to improve, is to change from the rut 
they have already fallen into, chiefly made by them- 
selves and the teachings of their first masters. I state 
this from experience, and to illustrate fully after I 
knew my trade (or "served my time," is a more rea- 
sonable way of explaining), having plenty of confi- 
dence and a great share of conceit in my abilities, I 
started out as a journeyman blacksmith, ''and then" 
I found out I had something to learn. But I found out 
that to change my ways and ideas was quite a difficult 
task and often got me in hot water, as I thought my 
way or rather the way I was taught by my first boss 
was correct. However, I soon decided that if I wanted 
to climb to the top of mechanical success and have a 
good reputation, I would have to change my ideas if 
I thought some other shop mate had an idea or method 
that was superior to mine, keep my eyes open, and do 
a great deal of thinking in my "own" mind. 



14 INTRODUCTION 

And if I could have had this book at the close of my 
apprenticeship, it would have saved me many a trouble- 
some job, many a long hour of study, a great deal of 
experimenting, large sums of money and placed me 
years in advance of the present times. And so I wish 
to say to the reader, although he may have some good 
ideas that perhaps are equal to the author's, while on 
the other hand he may have some not as good, read this 
book carefully from beginning to end, and follow its 
advice and he will be crowned with success, as a poor 
mechanic or Jack of all trades is not wanted in these 
days, where there is as much competition for the me- 
chanic's job as there is between business men in any 
mercantile business. And again, I say to the mechanic 
read this book carefully, follow the instructions closely, 
and you will hold your job and take first place. 



CHAPTER I. 

Steel, its use and necessity — Composition — Successful treat- 
ment — Different kinds — The cracking of steel when hard- 
ening and the cause — Judging and testing. 

Steel, Its Use and Necessity in All Arts, Trades and 
Professions. 

We could get along without a great many other ma- 
terials and metals, "but we must have steel," its great 
necessity comes first in all arts, trades, and professions. 
The doctor or surgeon must have fine lancing knives 
the dentist must have forceps, and the sculptor must 
have fine chisels. The machinist, boilermaker, stone- 
cutter, bricklayer and the stone mason, must have their 
tools made from steel in order to perform their skillful 
labor, likewise, the king and foundation of all mechan- 
ics, "The Blacksmith," he must in the first place have 
the anvil, hammers, chisels, fullers, swages, etc., to do 
his own work and make tools for others. 

Our Capitols, government buildings, palaces, cathe- 
drals, the great railroad systems, likewise the defense 
of our country, the navy and its guns, are all brought 
to the stage of perfection, by the use of steel and so 
we can readily see that steel comes first and foremost 
of all metals, and the mechanic who is so fortunate as to 
become a good steelworker, is entitled to all honor and 
should be proud of his skill. 

15 



16 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 



The Composition of Cast Tool Steel. 

In order to understand this subject fully, it is neces- 
sary to know something pertaining to the manufacture. 
But in a simple way of explaining, cast tool steel is 
chiefly composed of bar or wrought iron, although 
Avrought iron is a very useful metal, it is of too soft a 
nature in its natural state for the purpose of tool mak- 
ing. Consequently iron is put through a process by the 
steel manufacturer, and by the use of charcoal the iron 
becomes carbonized and so converted into steel. 

A great deal could be written on the manufacture 
of cast tool steel, as the steel, after being manufac- 
tured may be of good or bad quality and also being of 
different degrees of hardness or temper. The quality 
of the steel depends on the quality of iron used in the 
manufacture, while the hardness of the steel depends 
on the amount of carbon it contains. The temper of 
steel is classed or measured by the percentage of carbon 
in the steel, for example 100 points is equal to 1 per 
cent, to further explain, steel that is right for making 
cold chisels will consist of 75 points carbon, while steel 
used for machinists' lathe or turning tools which is re- 
quired to be much harder will consist of 1 per cent. 

Good cast steel should be manufactured from pure 
Swedish iron and should contain not less than 60 points 
carbon in order that it will readily become (after pass- 
ing through the various processes of the steelworker) 
hard as glass, tough as whalebone and as soft as lead. 
When toolmaking, a good quality of steel should al- 
ways be used, but as to hardness, it will depend on how 
the tool is to be used and what material the tool is to 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 17 

cut or be used upon, also a great deal will depend on 
the skill of the steelworker. 



The Successful Treatment of Steel. 

In the successful treatment of steel lies the founda- 
tion of this book and the toolsmith's art, and with 
which all the following processes that the steel must 
pass through before reaching the finished tool are con- 
nected. Thus: heating, forging, hammering, hard- 
ening, quenching, tempering, welding and annealing. 
These processes all form an equally important part in 
the manufacture of tools, and so to become an expert 
steelworker this subject must be understood by having 
a thorough knowledge regarding the nature of steel, 
together with good judgment, carefulness and skill. 



Heating. 

There are a great many different ways of heating 
steel, although the most common way is in the black- 
smith's coal or open fire, but in the large shops where 
tools are made in great quantities may be found fur- 
naces especially adapted for tool making which are 
heated by oil, gas, etc. 

The heating of steel is somewhat complicated owing 
to the different temperatures that are required (reader, 
give this your particular attention as success depends 
on the following), heating may be divided into four 
classes, as the forging heat, the hardening heat, the an- 
nealing heat and the welding heat. But for the benefit 
of the apprentice, I will say the different heats must be 
learnt by experimenting, but to the blacksmith of more 



18 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 

or less experience, I will describe the heats of a piece of 
ordinary steel 75 points in carbon (which will answer 
all ordinary purposes), in the following manner, a yel- 
low heat for forging, cherry red for hardening, blood 
red for annealing, and a white heat for welding. 



Forgoing. 

Forging is the toolsmith's labor which is required to 
bring or change a piece of steel into any shape or form, 
by referring to the forging heat, it is at all times neces- 
sary and beneficial to have a yellow or soft heat, then 
the steel will be worked clear through, and especially 
in heavy forging, but the heat must gradually decrease 
as the tool becomes finished. For example, supposing 
the toolsmith has a piece of steel one inch square and 
it is to be forged down to a chisel shaped point, it is 
heated slowly and evenly to a high or yellow heat, the 
toolsmith and helper forges it into the shape required 
until it is necessary to get another heat, but the second 
heat will not necessarily be so hot as it will be sufficient 
to finish the tool and the hardest work is over, when 
the steel is finished at a low heat and the last blows 
of the hammer fall on the flat side. The steel is left 
finer and stronger than if finished at a high heat. 



Hammering. 

Hammering steel in the finishing stage is one of the 
greatest secrets of success connected with forging tools, 
it is at all times necessary as it toughens, refines and 
packs the steel, but it is chiefly for tools that have a 
flat surface. On tools that have no flat surface but are 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 19 

either round or square, the blows must naturally fall 
on all sides alike, consequently the steel is left in its 
natural state. But tools that are flat, such as cold 
chisels or mill picks, the last blows say 10 or 15, must 
fall on both flat sides evenly when at a low heat, but 
bear in mind tliat not a blow is to strike the edge as it 
will knock out all the tenacity that has been put in the 
steel by the blows on the flat surface, and do not ham- 
mer the steel too cold as it will ruin the steel. If the 
hammering is properly done the steel will show a bright 
black gloss. 

Hardening. 

The process for hardening is by heating the steel to a 
certain heat then cooling off suddenly in water, which 
will immediately change the steel from its soft natural 
state, into that of a hard glasslike state and will show 
a white appearance when coming out of the water. But 
after coming through this operation the steel may be 
properly or improperly hardened, steel that is properly 
hardened is finer and stronger than improperly hard- 
ened steel, and if broken would present a fine crystai- 
ized fracture, while on the other hand, improperly 
hardened steel when broken would present a coarse 
fracture resembling a piece of honeycomb and will 
break very easy. The secret of success for proper 
hardening lies in the heat that is used, the proper heat 
must be found out by experimenting. A good way to 
find out the proper heat, will be, take a small piece of 
steel and on one end put deep nicks in it with a chisel, 
about half an inch apart, say, for three inches back, 
as shown in Figure 1. Now place the end that has the 
nicks, in the fire and heat the extreme point to a white 



20 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 

or welding heat, then plunge into cold water and cool 
off "dead cold." Now place over the anvil, commenc- 
ing at the extreme point that was the hottest and break 
off at the first nick, then the next and so on until all 
is broken, and the results will be as formerly explained. 
The first piece when broken will show a coarse, hard 
and very brittle fracture being very easy to break, and 
as the other pieces are broken the fracture will be no- 
ticed to be getting finer and harder to break until the 



TTTTTT 



Fig. 1. Showing piece of steel for hardening test. 

one is come to showing a fine crystallized fracture re- 
sembling a piece of glass. Another way to find out 
the proper heat for hardening will be to have 3 or 4 
thin flat pieces of steel, heat them to different heats 
then break off taking particular notice of the fracture, 
and how some pieces will break much easier than 
others. 

When hardening steel, always bear in mind to harden 
it at as low a heat as it will be sure to harden at, as 
proper hardening is the gateway of success in making 
tools that have to hold a good cutting edge. 



The Hardening Bath. 

In connection with the hardening of steel the harden- 
ing bath forms a very important part and which should 
not be overlooked. It consists chiefly of water, which 
must be clean and free from all oily or greasy sub- 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 21 

stance. Water containing any greasy substance of any 
kind will not act so quickly or as satisfactory as clear, 
clean water. Rain or soft water is preferred to hard 
well water, but salt put in the water to form a brine is 
still better, as steel will harden at a lower heat in brine 
than in the ordinary pure water and this is a point to 
be well considered, so keep as much salt in the water 
as it will dissolve or soak up. Still another advantage 
by the use of brine is that it will not steam up so 
quickly as water and this is also worthy of thought 
when hardening large tools. At all times keep the bath 
as large and as cold as possible. 



Quenching. 

In the quenching or cooling of steel during the hard- 
ening process, a great deal is to be learned, as some- 
times the tool is liable to warp when being quenched, 
in some cases so bad as to spoil or crack the tool, while 
the cause will occur from improper quenching, as a 
great deal depends according to the way the tool is 
placed in the water or hardening bath, and also accord- 
ing to the shape of the tool. 

Some tools must cut the water as a knife, others 
again must thrust it as a dagger, and some at one 
angle, some at another. For example, take a round 
piece of steel 6 inches long and % thick, and it is to be 
hardened the whole length of itself. After heating, it 
will have to be lowered into the bath from a perfectly 
upright position, if it has been properly forged, heated, 
and annealed, it will come from the water perfectly 
straight, but should it be placed in the water from an 



22 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 

angular position it will be very apt to warp. Wide flat 
tools, whether partly or wholly hardened should be 
quenched in a perfectly upright position or they will 
warp flatwise. 

Tempering". 

After hardening the steel it will be too hard for 
some purposes, and so the hardness must be reduced by 
reheating it to a certain degree according to the work 
it is to do, which is '^ termed" tempering. If a piece 
of hardened steel be polished bright, then reheated, dif^ 
ferent colors will appear and change as the steel be- 
comes heated to a greater degree. The colors will ap- 
pear in their turn as follows, commencing with the least 
degree of heat will be a light straw, dark straw, copper, 
red, purple, dark blue, light blue and grey, and by 
watching the colors the steelworker regulates the tem- 
per or hardness of the tool. 

Tempering is the process that will readily change 
steel from its hardened glass like state into an elastic 
springy nature resembling whalebone. For illustra- 
tion, take a thin piece of steel 3 inches long, % inch 
wide, 1-16 thick, after hardening the whole piece from 
end to end then tempering to a very light blue and 
allowing it to cool off on its own accord, it will be 
found to be in a very elastic state and if bent it would 
immediately come back straight again. Tempering 
should not be classed as hardening or vice versa, as is 
often the ease with a great many mechanics. For ex- 
ample, a tool that is to be only hardened and no tem- 
per drawn, should be classed as hardened, "and not 
tempered. ' ' 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 23 



Welding. 

Welding is the process or art of joining two pieces 
of steel together so as to form one solid piece, and 
which forms a verj" important part in steel working 
or toolmaking. There are several errors made when 
welding steel, some of the most common ones being, the 
want of the proper knowledge concerning the nature of 
steel, a green or unclean fire containing sulphur and 
other foreign matter, which is dangerous to hot steel, 
the absence of the proper welding heat, and improper 
ways of uniting the pieces together. For the benefit 
of those who have not had much practice and those who 
have only been partly successful, I will give these in- 
structions, which, if followed closely will insure suc- 
cess. First of all the welding point in the steel that 
is to be welded must be known, as there are several 
kinds of steel, some will require a higher heat to weld 
than others, the heat varying according to the hardness 
of the steel. 

For illustration, we make a weld by uniting two 
pieces of steel together and we have had good success, 
as the weld represents one solid piece. Now we pro- 
ceed to make another weld, and in exactly the same 
way as the first weld, the same welding heat is used and 
the same fire, but this time we do not meet with success 
for as soon as the hot steel is struck with the hammer, 
to form the weld, the steel flies to pieces (I hear the 
reader ask the reason, why), because the steel was 
heated to a higher heat than what the steel would 
stand, and the consequence is, all the labor has been 
lost, the fault lies in not knowing the welding point. 

We could take wrought iron and make every weld at 



24 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 

the same heat, but not so with steel, on account of it 
varying in hardness. And so in cases when the me- 
chanic is in doubt as to the hardness or welding point 
in the steel, use this rule. Take a piece of the steel that 
is to be welded, heat it to a yellow heat,. then place it 
over the edge of the anvil and strike it a light blow 
with the hammer, if the steel does not crumble or fall 
to pieces, keep increasing the heat until it does, this 
will enable anyone to test the steel for hardness, and 
so find the welding point or just how high a heat the 
steel will stand before crumbling or flying to pieces 
when making a weld. 

But although the welding heat is well understood, 
there are other things to consider, as we must have a 
clean fire with the coal well charred and all gas, sul- 
phur, clinkers, ashes, etc., must be taken from the 
fire, to insure a solid weld. Welding is more fully ex- 
plained in another chapter of the book, as, in dirt 
picks. 

Annealing. 

The chief object of annealing steel is to soften it. 
the process being almost opposite to that of hardening. 
In hardening, the steel is cooled off very quickly, but 
in annealing, the steel is cooled very slowly. Steel to 
anneal must be heated in somewhat the same manner 
as to harden, with the exception that the annealing 
heat must not exceed the proper hardening he^t, a 
little less heat will be best, for example a blood red. 

The advantage to be gained by annealing steel is to 
make it soft, in order that it may be easily filed, turned,, 
or planed. Without annealing some steel will be too 
hard for the machinist's use, tools that are forged by 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 25 

the toolsmith and finished by a machinist should al- 
ways be annealed, and in a great many cases the steel 
must be annealed when it comes from the manufac- 
turer, before it can be worked satisfactorily. 

There are many ways to anneal, but the method that 
is commonly used, is by taking a piece of steel heated 
to the heat previously mentioned, and packed deep into 
slack lime allowing it to remain there until perfectly 
cold. Wood ashes may be used in place of slack lime, 
but they should be perfectly dry and free from all 
dampness. Fine dry sawdust is also very good, but it 
should be kept in an iron box in ease the sawdust 
catches fire. 

There is another good way to anneal and which is 
very often preferred on account that it is much quicker. 
Take a piece of steel heated as mentioned. Then hold 
it in a dark place long enough, so that the heat will 
all pass off, save a dim dull red. Then plunge into 
water to cool off. This is called the water anneal, and 
some machinists say that tools take a better hold of it. 
If the process was right the steel will come from the 
water resembling a piece of hardened steel, showing a 
black and white appearance by being partly scaled 
off. This method, however, may need a little experi- 
menting before getting the best results. Points on an- 
nealing will be found in other parts of the book. 

Different Kinds of Steel. 

There are many kinds, grades, and brands of steel 
which vary in shape, quality, and hardness, according 
to the tool that is to be made from it and which the 
ordinary blacksmith is not familiar with. Steel used 
in the blacksmith shop does not take in such a wide 



26 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 

range as that used in a large machine shop, as steel 
of 75 points carbon will answer all purposes in the 
blacksmith shop, but in the machine shop steel is used 
of a much higher carbon, ranging up to 100 points or 
1 per cent and even higher. High carbon steel is used 
chiefly for making lathe and planer tools, which has 
been found out by practical experience to be prefer- 
able owing greatly to the reason, that these tools do 
their v/ork by steady pressure. Should a cold chisel 
be made from high carbon steel, say 1 per cent, the 
head of the chisel would be continually breaking and 
splitting off. High carbon steel is more difficult to 
weld and will harden at a less heat than low carbon 
steel. Tools that are to do their work by striking with 
a hammer, as a cold chisel, should always be made from 
a medium low carbon steel. But in these days, steel can 
be had in any shape or temper to suit any tool, so when 
ordering steel from the manufacturer always state what 
kind of tools the steel is to be used for. The percentage 
of carbon which the steel should contain for different 
tools will be fully explained throughout the book, as 
each tool is described. 

The Cracking of Tools When Hardening and the Cause. 

The cracking of tools during the hardening process, 
is one of the great obstacles to be overcome by the 
steelworker, and which is the cause of the loss of a 
great amount of expensive tools and labor. 

The primary and main cause for tools cracking when 
hardening, is overheating of the steel, another cause is 
by uneven heating, still another cause will result from 
forging and leaving strains in the steel by irregular 
heating and hammering, and also by improper anneal- 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 27 

ing. Steel that is heated in the blacksmith's fire is 
very liable to crack in hardening, unless great care be 
exercised, and the tendency for the steel to crack will 
be increased, if the mechanic has only a limited amount 
of knowledge as regards the nature and virtue of 
steel. For illustration I will give the way that a great 
many who call themselves steelworkers, harden a piece 
of steel. They will take the piece of steel, place it in 
the fire, then turn on or blow a very strong blast so as 
to heat it quickly, getting one part at a white heat 
while another part is barely red, then plunge it into 
the water any way to cool off, consequently it cracks, 
and the operator blames the steel saying it was no 
good, while he himself was to blame. Laying the 
blame on the steel is the theory of a great many black- 
smiths and steelworkers, especially when the tool does 
not give good satisfaction. But on the other hand, 
should the tool do good work they are ready to take 
all the praise to themselves by telling others about it, 
and I state this from experience as I have been in the 
same position before finding out my mistake. 

Now let us harden a piece of steel properly as it 
should be done, and for example, supposing we have 
a flat piece to be hardened, 2 inches square by i/o inch 
thick. Place the steel flatways on top of the fire, heat 
slowly and very evenly, turning the steel over occa- 
sionally so as not to heat in streaks, until the whole 
piece becomes heated to a cherry red or just enough to 
harden, then cool edgeways from an upright position, 
in clean cold water allowing it to remain there until it 
is perfectly cold, and it will be perfectly hardened and 
free from all cracks. 

And to more fully illustrate, I will relate a little in- 
cident in my own experience. I took a position as 



28 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 

toolsmith in one of the large shops of the Chicago, Rock 
Island and Pacific Eailroad. The first job I undertook 
to do, was to harden and temper a great number of flat 
thread cutting dies, as I started to work the machinist 
foreman came along and said to me, "I want you to 
harden these dies without leaving cracks in them." A 
few days after the dies had been in use, I asked him 
if he found any cracks in the dies, and he replied ''no, 
not one." Then he went on and explained to me, that 
the toolsmith who was there before me, was continu- 
ally leaving cracks in the dies and laying the blame 
on the steel saying it was no good, while the dies were 
not giving good satisfaction and at the same time keep- 
ing a machinist busy making new ones and keeping 
others in repair. A few days later the machinist (who 
was keeping the tools in repair) came along to me and 
said, ' ' I am not working much more than half my time 
since you started, as I have not near so many dies to 
keep in repair." Reader, I have not related this af- 
fair to give myself praise, but instead, to point out to 
you the difference between two mechanics and both 
calling themselves toolsmiths, one having very little 
knowledge concerning the nature and working of steel, 
was giving poor satisfaction, spoiling a great many 
tools and resulting in the loss of his position. 

The other had a thorough knowledge of steel in 
every way and did his work in a highly satisfactory 
manner. 

The first man did his work by heating his tools too 
fast, having one part of a tool at a white heat and 
another part scarcely red, and when being cooled to 
harden they cracked. The second man did his work 
by watching carefully so as to heat the tool very 



TOOLSMITII AND STEELWORKER 29 

evenly, no part of the tool being any hotter than just 
enough to harden, the results being every tool came 
through the hardening process safe and sound, with- 
out a flaw of any kind. Reader, which of these me- 
chanics are you going to be, first or second ? Consider 
the difference between the two, then take your choice. 

How to Judge Hard from Soft Steel. 

There are numerous ways of telling the difference 
between hard and soft steel, as in the following. First 
way is by the fracture of a fresh break, as hard steel 
when broken cold from the bar, will show a very fine 
and smooth fracture, while soft steel will show a coarse 
and rough fracture. Second way, take two bars of % 
inch octagon steel nick the bars all around when cold, 
6 inches apart for cold chisels, place the part of the 
bar at the nick directly over the square hole of the 
anvil. Then strike with a sledge. The hard bar will 
break at the nicks with one or perhaps two blows, but 
the soft bar will require five or six blows in order to 
break it. 

Third way, supposing a number of cold chisels are to 
be dressed that have been in use for some time, by 
close observation it will be seen that the heads are of a 
different shape and appearance. For instance. The 
head of one chisel will have the steel widened out and 
curled down over the body of the chisel. This illus- 
trates soft steel of about 60 points carbon. Another 
head will crumble off as it widens out instead of curling 
up. This indicates steel of medium hardness of 75 or 
80 points carbon, which is the best for cold chisels and 
all similar tools. Still another head will show the steel 



30 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 

split and broken off half an inch down the sides. This 
represents a high carbon steel of 1 per cent, which is 
too hard for chisel use, but would be good for lathe 
and planer tools. This way is perfectly reliable when 
telling the difference between hard and soft steel. When 
forging, soft steel will give much more readily under 
the hammer and will hold the heat much longer, than 
hard steel. 

If two pieces of steel, one hard the other soft, are 
hardened at the same heat, the hard piece will be scaled 
off white, while the soft piece will be only partly scaled 
off, showing a black and white appearance. 



How to Tell Good from Poor Steel. 

The fracture of good steel when first broken, will 
show a silvery white appearance clear through the bar, 
while the fracture of poor steel will show a dull grey. 
When judging or testing steel by the fracture do not 
allow the steel to get wet or rusty. 



Testing Steel After Hardening With a File. 

When hardening tools of an expensive nature, it is 
always best to make sure the steel is properly hardened 
before undertaking to draw the temper, by testing with 
a good sharp file in some part that will not interfere 
with the cutting qualities of the tool. Should the file 
run over the steel without taking a hold, the steel is all 
right, but on the other hand, should the file take a 
hold of it, the tool will have to be hardened again, 
having a little higher heat than the first time. 



TOOLSMIIH AND STEEL WORKER 31 

Instructions on Toolmaking That Have to Be Given 
Many Times. 

In giving instructions on toolmaking in the following 
chapters of this book it will be necessary to give to a 
certain extent the same advice as different tools are 
described. And so I will ask the reader to bear this in 
mind, as what is told many times will be that which 
is most beneficial towards making steel work a success, 
and also which I wish to impress most deeply on the 
reader's mind in order that it may be well remembered 



CHAPTER 11. 

The blacksmith's fire — Anvil — Tongs — Making a hand 
hammer. 

The Blacksmith's Fire. 

The fire is one of the most important things con- 
nected with the blacksmith 's or tooldresser 's trade, and 
is the first thing I will describe toward toolmaking. 
The main points of a fire to be considered is, the fire 
should be on a forge large enough to enable the fire to 
be easily regulated to any size, according to the work 
that has to be heated in it, and have plenty of blast 
which can be well regulated. The fire should always 
consist of well charred coal, being perfectly free from 
all sulphur, gas, ashes, clinkers and thick smoke 
before undertaking to heat steel in it. 

In reference to the size of the fire I will illustrate, 
supposing we have a large piece of steel to heat (say a 
stone hammer), we want to heat it evenly and clear 
through, the fire must be large enough to accommodate 
the hammer so that it will not come in contact with the 
blast from the blower or bellows, and still have a cer- 
tain amount of fire over the hammer, which will re- 
quire a fire of about 6 inches deep and 8 inches across 
the surface, but a smaller fire will do in case of small 
tools. 

The author has used a fire that was barely iy2 inches 
across the whole heated surface, but this was made 
especially for hardening and tempering certain parts 

32 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 33 

of tools. But be on the safe side by having the fire 
large enough, as coal is cheaper than steel and saves 
time. 

It will be money saved by securing as good coal as is 
possible to get, there being a great difference in coal, 
as some kinds are more free from smoke and sulphur 
and will not cake or get hard as othei kinds, and 
tools of irregular shape can be placed more easily 
without disturbing the build of the fire. Keep the coal 
under cover and clear from all rubbish, coal loses a 
great amount of its heating qualities when the sun 
shines on it continually. 

Bellows and Blowers. 

In the majority of ordinary shops the bellows are still 
used, some being much better than others, both as to 
the power of the blast and the construction of the 
bellows, and to anyone who is following the trade of 
blaeksmithing I would advise having as good a one as 
is possible to get. 

I have seen bellows that have been in use for fifteen 
years and are almost as good as new, while others will 
wear out in one year. The hardness or easiness as the 
case may be of blowing the bellows is chiefly due to the 
way they are set up (as I have seen bellows that would 
tire a blacksmith to blow them, which should be in 
the nature of a rest instead of hard work), and if the 
uprights or posts on which the bellows hang are in a 
very upright position, the chances are the bellows will 
be hard to blow, so set them at an angle of about 45 
degrees. If the uprights are given too much angle 
there will be too much leverage, and the bellows will 
lack motion. 



34 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 

Blowers are used a great deal in these days (they 
take the place of bellows), which are run by hand in 
small shops by the use of a crank or lever, although in 
large shops blowers are run by steam power, and the 
smith simply regulates his fire by moving a lever to 
different positions. It makes no difference what pro- 
duces the blast so long as there is plenty of it, and at 
the same time it can be well regulated. 

The Anvil. 

The anvil is a tool used in the blacksmith trade or 
shop which is practically the foundation of all tools, for 
the forging and shaping of all classes of work and 
more particular in regards to toolmaking. There are a 
great many different sizes of anvils, as well as a great 
many different makes. In reference to the size of the 
anvil, some smiths want one size, some another, but 
for general tool work an anvil weighing 225 pounds 
is about right. 

There is a great difference in the make and also the 
quality of anvils. The author has forged tools on 
almost every make of anvil manufactured in Great 
Britain or the United States, but the kind that has 
given the most satisfactory results, and which can be 
relied upon, is known as the Hay Budden, Manufac- 
tured by the Hay Budden Manufacturing Company, 
Brooklyn, New York, U. S. A, 

This make of anvils is fully guaranteed, they 
are made from the very best material and by expert 
workmen, and the face is perfectly hardened. There 
are no soft spots, neither do they sag down or get hol- 
lowing in the face, as in a great many other makes, 
including the Peter Wright. This is no hearsay, 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 35 

neither is the author favoring any particular manufac- 
turer, but this advice is founded on experience which 
is for the reader's benefit, as in order to do good Avork 
a good anvil is necessary, which is perfectly free from 
all hollows and soft spots. Tools of a flat surface, such 
as cold chisels, mill picks, axes, etc., must be dressed 
on a hard and smooth anvil face to obtain the best 
results. When dressing wide tools such as an axe, a 
rough faced anvil will produce strains in the steel, 
which will increase the tendency to crack when hard- 
ening. 

The height of the anvil when on the block depends 
upon the tallness of the blacksmith who is to forge on 
it. I have noticed cases where a blacksmith was work- 
ing over an anvil so high as to be unable to strike a 
good hard blow, while on the other hand a tall black- 
smith was working over a low anvil that was making 
him humpbacked and round shouldered. But a good 
rule to go by, which will be found about right for all, 
is to have the anvil just high enough so that the black- 
smith may readily touch the anvil face with his 
knuckles when clasping the hammer handle and stand- 
ing in an upright position. 

Don't have the anvil merely sitting on a block that 
is continually jumping up and down with every blow 
from the hammer, but have it well bound to the block. 
But some will say, "That stops it from ringing," or "I 
can't work on an anvil that does not ring." Reader, 
this is all nonsense, what has the ringing of the anvil 
to do with the work, it may be all right for the class 
that wants to make a lot of noise to let others know 
they are' working, but it is of no use when it comes to 
doing the work with ease, both for the blacksmith and 
helper. So have a block a little larger than the base of 



36 



THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 



the anvil, a good depth in the ground, say S^^ or 4 feet 
(if it can't be made solid any other way), place the 
anvil on it and bore a hole through the block 6 inches 
below the anvil. 

Now make a bolt from % round iron 2% inches 
longer than the block, as shown in Figure 2 at a. Make 




0- 



Fig. 2. Irons to bind anvil to block. 



two irons from % square as b, leaving them long 
enough so that the holes in the ends will extend over 
the base of the anvil. After taking the measure make 
two irons, as c, which are to extend from below the 
bolt in the post up through the irons that rest on the 
base of the anvil b. Place all together and tighten 



I 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 



37 



up the nuts firmly. Figure 3 illustrates the anvil fast- 
ened to the block. In large up to date shops cast iron 
blocks are used, which are made especially for the 
anvil to fit into, thereby holding the anvil perfectly 
fast. 




Fig. 3. Showing anvil bound to block. 



Tongs. 

Tongs are among the most necessary tools needed 
by the blacksmith, and without them he would be at a 
standstill. There are a great many different shapes 
and forms of tongs (with the exception of a few ordi- 
nary styles) which are made according to the work they 
are to hold, and to be a good tong maker is an art to 
be proud of, as it requires skill to make them light and 
strong, and have them hold perfectly fast to the work 
without hurting or cramping the hand. 

Success often depends on good tongs, as I have known 
blacksmiths to fail at their work simply for the want 
of them. Again, a blacksmith who uses all his strength 
to hold clumsy or poor tongs on the work cannot use 
his hammer to advantage. The author has tongs that 
are made entirely from steel and are very strong, 



38 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 

and also are only half the weight of the ordinary iron 
tongs. They are a pleasure to use, as they hold per- 
fectly firm with very little hard pressure, because the 
handles just come close enough together so as to keep 
the hand full, in somewhat the same way as clasping a 
hammer handle. These tongs have been in use a num- 
ber of years and are as good as new. 

In using tongs made from steel care should be exer- 
cised to keep them cool (and especially if made from 
cast steel) by occasionally placing them in water. If 
brine is used to do the hardening keep the tongs out of 
it or they will rust, but should there be occasion to put 
the tongs in it be sure and rinse off after in clear water. 

One of the greatest features in making tongs at the 
present time is to have them adjustable, so that one 
pair will do the work of seven or eight ordinary pairs 
of tongs. I have tongs in my possession that will hold 
from 1/2 inch square up to l^/^ inches square, or octagon, 
and will also hold flat sizes 2 inches by % down to % 
square, and hold each size very firm, while the size is 
regulated by an adjustable jaw by moving a small bolt 
into different holes in the jaw, which requires but a few 
seconds to change, as shown in Figure 4. Still another 
point worthy of mention is to make the handles half 
round. This will form a spring and will be very easy 
to hold, but have the half round as wide as is reason- 
able ; for example, % half round will be right and fill 
the hand better than 7-16 round. Figure 5 illustrates 
tongs specially adapted for dressing cold chisels, made 
with V-shaped jaws, which will readily hold round, 
square or octagon. When making tongs, as Figures 4 
and 5, from cast steel use a very soft steel of about 60 
points carbon, and % square in size. After forging 
the jaws, as shown in Figure 5, the handles may be 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 



J9 




End view of adjustable tongs 
when holding smallest size. 





Showing how adjustable jaw is 

forged — dotted lines indicate 

where to split. 



V 



Showing piece split and forged 
to shape of jaw. 



X=7 

Adjustable tonga 



V3> 

Fig. 4 

regulated for holding 
largest size. 



40 



THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 




Figure showing jaws made to 
hold round octagon or square. 





illustrating how jaws are forged 
and bent to shape. 



U 



a 

03 



a 



03 



a 

o 



to 
1^ 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 



41 



forged or welded on, but will prove most satisfactory 
if forged in one piece. 

Figure 6 illustrates double levered and adjustable 
tongs invented by the 



celebrated steel worker, 
Prof. W. S. Casterlin, 
Pittston, Pennsylvania, 
U. S. A. These tongs 
have been improved by 
the author and are very 
powerful and light. They 
are especially designed 
for grasping tools of a 
beveled nature, such as 
mill picks, axes, etc., and 
will hold flat material of 
any width, ranging in 
thickness from 1-16 to 
1% inches. The jaws of 
these tongs are copper 
lined, which prevents 
slipping. 

Fullers and Swages. 

These tools are invalu- 
able to the blacksmith in 
shaping and forging 
many classes of work, 
especially in toolmaking. 
Fullers and swages take 
in a wide range of differ- 
ent sizes, from % to 2 
inches for ordinary use, 




C7 



^::7 






J2 

o 



to 



42 



THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 



and larger sizes are used according to the class of work 
to be done. When making fullers or swages use a 
soft carbon steel of about 65 points. They will not 
require to be hardened or tempered as their work is 
chiefly on hot iron or steel. 
Figure 6i^ represents a top and bottom swage, while 





Fig. 6/4. Top and bottom swages. 



Figure 7 shows a small size of top and bottom fullers. 
Figure 8 illustrates a large top fuller. Figure 9 indi- 
cates how large swages, and also large fullers, as 
Figure 8, may be forged before bending to shape. 
Dotted lines as aa, illustrate the projections, cc, bent 
to form a fuller. Dotted lines, as bb, illustrates the 
projections bent to form a swage. 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 



43 





Fig. 7. Top and bottom fullers. 





Fig. 8. Front view of 
large top fuller. 



b L/ 'VJ. b 

Fig. 9. How large fullers and 
swages may be forged. 



Flatters and Set Hammer. 

The flatter is to the blacksmith what the plane is to 
the carpenter, being principally used for taking out all 
hammer marks and so leave a finished appearance on 



44 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 

the work, but may be used for several other purposes. 
Flatters may be divided into two classes, such as light 
and heavy (most blacksmiths make use of only one 
flatter, which is generally a heavy one, but a light one 
can be used to advantage in a great many cases), and 
although they are made with either round or square 
edges, the round edged flatter is preferred for general 
use. Flatters are generally made by upsetting the 
steel to form the face, then the projections of the face 
are spread with a fuller or otherwise may be driven 
down in a square socket, same size as the body of the 
steel. But flatters may be made by selecting a piece of 
steel the same size as the face of the flatter is to be, 
then fuller in from all four sides of the steel and draw 
out, afterwards cutting off from the main body of the 
steel according to the thickness or depth of the face. 

Set hammers are very useful in making square cor- 
ners and are very convenient in accomplishing work 
in awkward places which cannot be done with a flatter. 
Figure 10 illustrates a light round edged flatter, while 
Figure 11 shows a heavy flatter with square edges, and 
Figure 12 shows a set hammer. 

The Hammer. 

A good hammer is a tool to be prized by a blacksmith, 
and plays an important part in working steel. 
The face of the hammer must be properly hardened 
and tempered, in order to prevent it from getting hol- 
low in the center or being too hard on the corners, thus 
causing it to break, and the face must be perfectly 
smooth so as not to leave any nicks or dents in the 
steel. 

A great many blacksmiths think all they have to do 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 




Fig. 10. Light round edge flatter, made from l/i inch square 
eteel, face 2 inches square. 




Fig. 11, Heavy square edge flatter made from 1/4 inch square 
steel, face 2% inch square. 



46 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 

in order to get a good hammer is to go to the hardware 
store and buy one. They will buy one all right, but 
what are the results. It is this, after they are in use 
a little while a piece will break off the face, which if 
examined closely the fracture will show a dull gray 
appearance, a sure sign of poor steel. 

By referring to buying hammers in the hardware 
store, I had a wide experience during my first years 




Fig. 12. Set hammer made from 1% inch square steel. 

at the trade, and through ignorance, after purchasing 
a hammer and it did not give good satisfaction, I would 
generally give the hardware man a calling down for 
selling it to me. Although he was not to blame as his 
business was to sell and not to manufacture, and as 
regards his knowledge concerning good or bad steel, it 
was very limited. I am not stating this, reader, to 
criticise the hardware merchant, or the tool manufac- 
turer, or machine made tools of any kind, as in a great 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 47 

many cases the machine tools are equal to those that 
are hand made. But not so in the case of a good hand 
forged, hardened and tempered hammer. 

Making and Dressing a Hand Hammer. 

In making a hammer, as to weight and shape, it is 
hard to say what would suit all blacksmiths, but for a 
forging hammer for making and dressing tools, two 
pounds in weight will be about right. But in cases 
such as dressing mill picks, granite tool sharpening, 
and on jobs of tool dressing where a helper is not 
necessary, a hammer of three and one-quarter pounds 
in weight will be best. 

But let us take a piece of good steel of about 75 point 
carbon, l^/^ inches square and 4 inches long, which will 
make a forging hammer two pounds in weight. Have 
a good clean fire and plenty large enough; place the 
steel in the fire and heat slowly, turning it around oc- 
casionally so as not to overheat the corners while the 
center is yet black, but heat to a good even yellow 
heat clear through. The hammer may now be forged 
as shown and illustrated in a b c, Figure 13, or any 
shape the blacksmith may choose. I have known black- 
smiths who could forge a well shaped hammer equal 
to the expert toolsmith, but when they came to the 
hardening and tempering of it would fail entirely. 

I will state some of the obstacles that blacksmiths 
have to contend with which reduce the chances of 
making a good hammer. They are afraid to heat the 
steel to a high forging heat ; and to explain, I remem- 
ber when in my apprenticeship I was helping a black- 
smith to make a hammer, and as we were proceeding 
he was giving me instructions while I was blowing the 



48 



THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 

a 



Piece of iX inch square 
steel 4 inches long, with 
eye punched to make a 
2 lb. forging hammer. 




Illustrating how fullering 
is done after eye is 
punched. 




Showing side view of ham- 
mer completed with eye 
spread at c, (which is 
done with a fuller while 
the eye pin is in the eye 
of the hammer) and ful- 
lered in at e, with a 
larger fuller at the finish. 



Indicating how hammer 
is forged. 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 49 

bellows, he said: "Never heat a piece of steel hot 
enough to raise a scale," (and of course at that time 
I thought the advice was good), however, we worked 
away, getting the eye punched, which was quite a hard 
job at that low heat, considering we had a 2 inch square 
piece of steel, but while we were making the hammer 
we had other jobs to do as is generally the case in a 
general blacksmith shop, and so occasionally the steel 
was left soaking in the fire for half an hour at a time 
(letting the steel lay in the fire is a bad practice among 
blacksmiths and is very injurious to the steel after 
being hot enough to work). Well, we got it forged to a 
very good shape, but I was not there when he hardened 
and tempered it (as I had given up my job). However, 
I called in some time after and noticed that the hammer 
was broken off at the corners, and also being hollow in 
the face. 

Another blacksmith who had forged a well shaped 
hammer and after hardening and tempering it in his 
own way, found it to be as soft as lead. This hammer, 
I think, was hardened and tempered three or four times 
without success, consequently he threw it in the scrap 
pile, saying the steel was no good, while he "himself" 
was to blame as he had a very poor knowledge pertain- 
ing to the working of steel. 

Now I would like to impress deeply on the reader's 
mind, if every mechanic could be an expert by doing his 
work in a rough and tumble way, the world would be 
full of expert mechanics, and if every blacksmith or 
toolsmith could make tools to give unlimited satisfac- 
tion, there would be no use in writing this book. But 
as this is impossible, it is necessary to have a thorough 
knowledge of working steel when forging hammers, and 
moderation in heating is the stepping stone to success. 



50 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 

For instance, if a square piece of steel is heated very 
hot and fast the corners will become overheated and 
if struck a blow with the hammer on the corners the 
steel would fly to pieces, while the steel has lost its 
good qualities and is spoiled in the beginning. The 
other extreme is trying to forge steel at a low heat, 
sometimes not above a blood red, while every blow that 
is struck on the steel is putting strains in it. What I 
mean by ** strains" is the steel must be hot enough so 
that it will be worked clear through, and if this is not 
done the steel is liable to crack in the hardening. I 
have known hammers to crack clear through the center 
of the face, then all the labor is lost. 

But to get the best results, forge the hammer in the 
beginning by having the steel at an even yellow heat, 
but lower the heat as the hammer is finished (all tools 
should be finished at a low heat, for example, a dark 
dull red, in order to get the best results). If much 
filing is to be done after the hammer is forged it should 
be annealed. When dressing the face end of the ham- 
mer make the corners a little rounding, but otherwise 
have the face perfectly flat and level, and the hammer 
is ready for the final blow, "the hardening." 

Hardening and Tempering a Hammer. 

After hardening there are different ways of temper- 
ing a hammer according to the shape. But for illustra- 
tion, I will harden and temper a hammer as in Figure 
13, but before commencing it must be understood that 
the face end of the hammer, at b, is the principal end. 
After getting the fire in goofi shape, the coal well 
charred and free from all sulphur and thick smoke, 
place the face end of the hammer in the fire from an 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 51 

upright position; now heat slowly and evenly, making 
sure that the corners do not get overheated ; should the 
corners get hot enough to harden before the center, stop 
blowing the fire until the center has come up to a cherry 
red, or hot enough to harden even with the corners; 
then plunge the whole hammer in the hardening bath 
and hold there until stone cold. Now polish the face 
end (that was hardened) bright, then place the round 
or pene end of the hammer in the fire in an upright 
position and heat very slowly, as while heating to 
harden the round end the temper will draw to a blue 
in the face end if properly timed or regulated, so that 
one end may be hardened and the opposite end temp- 
ered in one operation, but be careful to watch both 
ends of the hammer at the same time. If the round end 
gets hot enough to harden before the temper appears 
on the other end stop blowing the fire until the temper 
begins to show up. It will not matter about the round 
end, after hardening, whether any temper be drawn or 
not, as there are no sharp corners to break off, but the 
temper may be drawn by holding over the fire and 
keep turning the hammer around, or may be done by 
placing a heated heavy iron band over the end. 

Bear in mind that when heating the ends of the ham- 
mer to harden do not heat to a hardening heat more than 
% of an inch back from the end, and at all times never 
harden the eye, A hammer that is made, hardened and 
tempered after these instructions will not get hollow 
in the center or break off at the corners or the eye. 
This is the author's favorite way of hardening and 
tempering a forging hammer and will be found very 
simple by the average blacksmith when once tried. 
Although there is another good way which is very con- 
venient for hammers that have two face ends, such as 



52 THE TWENTIETH CENTUBY 

a liorseshoer's turning sledge or a boilermaker's ham- 
mer. For example, after the ends are hardened the 
temper can be drawn by placing a heated heavy iron 
band over the end of the hammer (as already men- 
tioned). This method will draw the corners to any 
temper (say a pale blue), while the center will remain 
hard. This way will give good satisfaction as the center 
of a hammer cannot be too hard unless overheated, but 
the corners must be drawn to a very low temper. These 
instructions will apply to all ordinary hammers and 
sledges. 

The old-fashioned way of tempering a hammer is by 
heating one end with the corners hot enough to harden, 
while the center is barely red, it is then cooled off 
by dipping an inch into the hardening bath, then allow- 
ing the temper to run down to the desired color. Con- 
sequently the hammer becomes hollow faced, could not 
be otherwise, as it did not harden in the center of the 
face at all, because it was not hot enough, and when 
the temper came down it made it still softer. For ex- 
ample, supposing a hammer face (unless it be a very 
small hammer) is heated very evenly, then hardened 
by being dipped an inch into the water, it is still bound 
to be soft as the temper is sure to run out at the center 
first. 

Successful Points to Be Remembered in Making and 
Tempering a Hammer. 

Have the eye straight through the hammer and a 
little smaller in the center, which will keep the handle 
in the hammer much better after being well fitted and 
then wedged. Always have the center of the hammer 
face as hard as the corners, but the corners must not 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 53 

exceed a light blue temper, unless the hammer is forged 
from a very soft cast steel, harden the hammer at as 
low heat as it will be sure to harden at. Have a good 
straight handle, a little spring to it is a good fault. 
Another good point to remember when making ham- 
mers is, do not punch the eye the full size at the be- 
ginning, but have it a little smaller, as the eye will get 
larger as the hammer is forged. 

Punching Holes in Steel. 

Punching holes in steel is considered by the average 
blacksmiths to be a difficult job, the trouble being they 
try to punch the steel at too low a heat or else they 
have not proper tools to do it with. Some blacksmiths 
use too long and straight an eye punch, consequently 
when the punch enters the steel a short distance the 
end becomes hot and upsets, causing it to stick in the 
steel, while the blacksmith experiences a difficulty to. 
get the punch out of the steel. Then the punch is 
straightened again and the blacksmith works away 
until he gets the hole through. I have known black- 
smiths to have a punch stick in the steel three or four 
times while punching one hole through a piece of 1^ 
inch square steel. 

Coal dust is very good when put in the hole to keep 
the punch from sticking, but the main points to be con- 
sidered is the heat in the steel when punching and 
proper shaped tools, especially when making hammers. 
And so make an eye punch and eye pin, as Figures 14 
and 15. The eye punch is made from l^/^ inch square 
steel. After the eye is punched the punch part of the 
tool should be forged down to an oval shape diagonally 
across the steel (which will bring the handle at a right 



54 



THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 



angle when the punch is in use and also keep the hand 
away from the hot steel), and be very short and have 
plenty of taper, while the corners of the extreme point 




Fig. 15. The eye pin. 



II 



should be perfectly square, an eye punch of this de- 
scription will not stick in the hole and will not bend. 

When punching have the steel a high yellow heat, 
then the punch will penetrate it with more ease than if 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 55 

heated to barely a cherry red, and cool off the punch oe* 
casionall3^ An eye pin should be made from % square 
steel, by forging it tapering to a small square point, 
then to make oval, hammer down two opposite corners 
of the square a little rounding, which will give the 
shape required. The eye pin should also be short and 
have plenty of taper, this will make the eye a little 
smaller in the center when driven in from opposite 
sides, which will keep a handle in much better if well 
fitted in then wedged. 



CHAPTER III. 
The cold chisel — The hardy — Drills and drilling. 

The Cold Chisel. 

A cold chisel is a tool used by every mechanical trade 
and business where iron or steel is used, or wherever 
machinery is repaired or manufactured, and in the 
proper forging, hardening and tempering of a cold 
chisel lies the foundation and successful stepping stone 
in making all edged tools with a flat surface, as a cold 
chisel hold a good cutting edge and neither bend 
or break. 

But the shape of the chisel is another point that must 
be well understood, as a fine chipping chisel which is 
made very thin for use on solid and soft material would 
not do for a boilermaker who is working on sheet steel 
which vibrates at every blow from the hammer. Thus, 
the vibration of the steel would be very trying on a thin 
chisel, and would consequently cause it to break, and 
so a heavier and thicker chisel must be made and put 
into use, as shown in 1, 2, 3, 4, Figure 16. . 

A cold chisel can be made to chip almost any kind 
of material, as the author has made chisels to chip from 
the softest known material up to chilled metal, which 
will seem like a fable to a great many simply because 
they never saw it accomplished. I have known 
machinists who wore out a number of new files per- 
forming some work on chilled metal, because they 
could not get a cold chisel properly made to chip it, 

56 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 57 

Now I would like to impress on the reader's mind that 
I have made chisels to chip metal that a file would not 
bite, but these chisels were not tempered to a blue (as 
a great many mechanics think a cold chisel must always 
be tempered to a blue), neither were they made from 
any old scrap piece of steel that might be handy. As 
I have known blacksmiths to take an old file or rasp, 
forge it to a round or square, and then attempt to make 



Q 



X 1 




G 





^' 



Fig. 16. Illustrating shapes of cold chisels according to use. 

1. Machinist's chipping chisel. 2. Ordinary or farmer's 

chisel. 3. Boilermaker's chisel. 4. Chisel 

for chipping hard metal. 

a cold chisel out of it, what nonsense. File steel as a 
rule is too high in carbon, being 1 per cent and over, 
while 75 point carbon is plenty high enough for cold 
chisels. Again, files in a great many cases are manu- 
factured from a poor grade of steel ; not only that, but 
the cuts or teeth of the file will be put deeper in the 



58 THE TWENTIETH CENTUEY 

steel the more it is forged, consequently as the tool is 
finished the teeth of the file will be in the cutting edge 
of the tool (which is to be used as a cold chisel), which 
will break out or upset when put in use. 

I will explain how the majority of blacksmith's 
harden and temper a cold chisel. After they have it 
forged to the shape, finishing sometimes with a low 
black heat, other times at a high yellow heat, no matter 
whether the last blows fall on the edge or the flat side, 
whichever is most convenient to bring the chisel into 
the desired shape, then file on the cutting edge, now 
for the hardening and tempering. They get the chisel 
hot anywhere from i/4 of an inch to 2 inches back from 
the cutting edge, dip into the water % of an inch, hold- 
ing it there for a minute or so, brighten it up a little, 
then allowing the temper to run down, no matter how 
fast, until a blue temper reaches the cutting edge, then 
it is cooled off and is ready for trial. Now I will point 
out the dangerous practices that the chisel has come 
through, when being hardened. The chisel was lowered 
into the water about % of an inch and held perfectly 
still for a short while, now right there between the 
hardened and the unhardened (if the chisel was heated 
enough to harden far enough back) is a dividing line 
and a strain, and a great many chisels are broken off 
there from the cause of this strain. Again, if there 
was plenty of heat left in the steel above the hardened 
part, especially if hardened barely 1 inch back from the 
edge, the temper will run down very quickly, so that 
when it reaches the cutting edge, there is only 14 of 
an inch that shows any temper which, will be a blue, 
the other colors have hardly been noticed on account 
of the temper running down so rapidly. Thus there 
is only ^4 of an inch back from the cutting edge of the 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 59 

chisel that is tempered, while back of the tempered 
part the steel will be extremely soft, which is apt to 
cause the cutting edge to bend or break off and should 
the chisel be thin the tendency to break or bend will 
be increased. 

But let us make a chisel, as No. 1, Figure 16, that 
will when finished cut the bar it is made from and not 
bend or break if used any way like a chisel should be 
used. Take a bar of % inch octagon good steel about 
75 point carbon, cut off 6 inches, which will make a 
chisel about the right length. The end that the ham- 
mer is to strike upon should be drawn down a little 
and left square or flat on the end, then the blow will 
fall directly on the center of the body of the chisel and 
be less liable to break it. Heat the steel for the chisel 
end to a good yellow forging heat, draw it down near 
to the required shape, making it a point to have it a 
little narrower than just what is wanted when finished, 
and we will finish the chisel in a way not known to the 
ordinary blacksmith. Now have the chisel a low red 
heat so that it may be noticed to be red when placed 
in a dark place. Then strike the chisel five or six good 
hard blows on the flat side (holding the chisel very 
firm and level on the anvil), commencing about 2 inches 
back from the cutting edge, then coming gradually 
towards the cutting edge with every blow, when the 
last blow has fallen directly on the cutting edge turn 
the chisel over and hammer this side the same way, but 
be careful and do not hammer the steel too cold, but 
instead heat again and hammer both sides evenly as 
before. Then it is finished and ready for the harden- 
ing. 

The hammering of the chisel on the flat sides when 
at a low heat refines and packs the steel, leaving it 



60 THE TWENTIETH CENTUEY 

dense and much stronger than steel in its natural state, 
but remember this, not one blow is to be struck on the 
edge of the chisel, as it would knock out all the 
tenacity and toughness put in by the blows on the 
flat side, if the edges spl-ead out a little uneven during 
the hammering grind or file to the right shape. Ham- 
mering steel after it gets cold or below a certain heat is 
injurious and makes the steel brittle and flaky as pie 
crust, and will never hold a good cutting edge until 
cut off. When hammering wide chisels, hammer in 
the form of dotted lines in chisel No. 1, commencing as 
indicated, and on both sides equally. Now we will 
harden and temper the chisel, after being forged as 
already explained, heat the chisel to an even cherry 
red heat 1^^ inches back from the cutting edge, then 
dip deep in the hardening bath at least 1^ inches, at 
the same time raising and lowering so as to form no 
dividing line of strain (and thus the hardened part 
will soften away gradually into the unhardened part). 
Polish up bright with some sand paper, emery cloth 
or polishing stick, as mentioned in the following pages, 
but after polishing there may not be enough heat left 
in the chisel to drive the temper down to the cutting 
edge, and so draw the temper by holding the chisel 
over the fire, heating very slowly and moving back 
and forward so as to get an even light blue temper all 
over the hardened part, then cool off. A chisel that 
is forged, hammered, hardened and tempered after 
these instructions will give the best of satisfaction, 
and can be placed over the horn of the anvil and struck 
quite a hard blow with a hammer, flatways on the- 
chisel, without danger of it breaking or bending. The 
reason the chisel stands this abuse is due to the heavy 
hammering that was done on the flat side at a low heat, 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 61 

and also by being properly hardened and tempered so 
far back acts as a foundation back from the cutting 
edge. 

The chisel, No. 1, Figure 16, is very thin being 1-16 
thick at the cutting edge and tapering back 2^/2 inches 
to 1/2 inch in thickness (when made from yg steel), and 
is classed as a machinist's chipping chisel. It will do 
for almost any machinist's ordinary work, but is too 
soft to cut anything harder than cast steel. A chisel 
to chip hard chilled metal, especially if struck with a 
heavy hammer, must be made with a short taper to 
form the cutting edge, as No. 4, Figure 16, and is tem- 
pered to a purple. If this is found to be too soft use 
a harder temper, say, a copper or dark straw. But if 
the metal is excessively hard, harden and draw no 
temper. Chisels that are made thick, are not required 
to be hardened and tempered so far back as thin chis- 
els. This information applies to all kinds of chisels and 
similar tools. Nos. 1 and 2, Figure 17, illustrates the 
cape and round nose chisels. When making these chis- 
els they should have a clearance by making the cutting 
edge, as A, No. 1, wider than at b, the round nose is 
forged round on the under side as c, by being placed in 
a bottom swage. 

The Hardy. 

The hardy is a tool used by almost every blacksmith, 
but more especially by general blacksmiths. It is used 
for numerous purposes, but its main use is, as a chisel. 
The cutting edge should be made thin, as the hardy is 
chiefly used for cutting hot iron or steel, and again if 
made thin it will not require so many blows from the 
hammer to do the work. The forging, hardening and 



62 



THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 



tempering are the same as mentioned in making a cold 
chisel. But the points to be considered when making 
one is, have the shank that fits into the square hole of 
the anvil, fit snug so that it will not twist round, while 
the upper part should extend well over the sides and 
should be level, so as to sit on the anvil solid. 

Sometimes it is necessary to make a hardy to go 
in the round hole of the anvil. A hardy of this kind, 
is made by splitting the steel, so that one part will 
extend over the side of the anvil which will keep it in 
place, as shown in Figure 19 at a. Hardies of this 

b 



(Q 





Fig. 17. Ordinary shapes of cape and round nose chisels. 
1. The cape chisel. 2. The round nose chisel. 

shape are used chiefly by toolsmiths when sharpening 
stone cutters' tools, as the square hole is occupied by 
holding other tools such as a stake which remains sta- 
tionary. And as a hardy is also very needful, it must 
be made to sit in the round hole, which is the only 
remedy. 

Heavy, Hot, Cold, and Railroad Chisels. 
I have known a great many blacksmiths to try and 
do all their work with one chisel. Now any reasonable 
thinking mechanic will know that a cold chisel will 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 63 





Fig. 18. Correct shape of Fig. 19. Hardy made to sit 

hardy. in round hole of anvil. 




Fig. 20. The blacksmith's cold chisel. 



64 ■ THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 

lose its temper when coming in contact with red hot 
iron or steel, and that a properly made hot or splitting 
chisel is too thin to cut cold steel and stand the sudden 
shock by a blow from a heavy sledge. Yet a great 
many will work away trying to cut a piece of cold 
steel, while the chisel will barely mark it, but instead 
the chisel bruises up, because it has been used on hot 
material and has lost its temper. But the blacksmith 
does not think of this, consequently he puts the blame 
on the steel which the chisel is made from and then 
decides to heat the piece (he is going to cut), so that 
he may cut it easier. But it is a poor theory as with a 
good heavy cold chisel he could cut off cold, three 
pieces (up to a certain size), while he is heating one 
piece. But a great many blacksmiths think it is not 
possible to cut off tool steel without heating it. 

But to impress on the reader's mind the necessary 
use of good chisels, we will take a railroad chisel, if it 
is well made and from good steel, it will cut at least 
15 rails, while I have known some to cut 60 rails with- 
out redressing, but they did not come in contact with 
hot material. Although there are today a great many 
blacksmiths and tooldressers who cannot make a chisel 
cut two rails, which applies also to the blacksmiths' 
hot and cold chisels, a good blacksmith's heavy cold 
chisel should cut off at least 120 pieces of yg-inch 
octagon steel of 75 point carbon without grinding. 

When making a blacksmith's hot or cold chisel, use 
1^ inch square steel which will be heavy enough for 
all ordinary work. A hot chisel should be made very 
thin so as to penetrate the hot metal with ease, but a 
cold chisel must be left much thicker. A hot chisel, 
when doing a great amount of cutting at once, should 
be cooled off occasionally to avoid drawing the temper 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 



65 



as little as possible. These chisels are forged, hardened 
and tempered as explained in making an ordinary small 
cold chisel, but heavy chisels, such as railroad chisels, 
instead of hammering with a hand hammer at the finish 
when forging, place a heavy flatter on the flat side of 
the chisel and let the helper strike it a few good heavy 




Fig. 21. The hot or splitting chisel. 

blows with a sledge, then turn over the chisel and go 
over this side the same way, which will have the same 
effect on the steel as hammering with a hand hammer, 
and be better, as the blows will be much heavier, but 
be sure that the flatter comes in contact with the ex- 
treme cutting edge. 

A railroad chisel is made from 1%^-inch square steel. 
It should not be made entirely square across the cutting 
edge as an ordinary chisel, but should be ground or 



e^ 



THE TWENTIETH "CENTURY 



filed rounding at the corners, as in Figure 22, which 
will make them more difficult to break and also give 
better satisfaction. If the cutting edge is tapered in 
from the sides to 1% inches across the cutting edge, it 
will cut deeper when struck with a sledge or hammer 
and will be more convenient to get in the corners of 




Fig. 22. The railroad chisel. 

the rail than if the cutting edge was the full width of 
the body of the chisel. 

Drills and Drillmg-. 

Drills are in great demand, both in the machine and 
blacksmith shops, but where drilling by hand power is 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKEB 67 

performed, is where good, fast and easy cutting drills 
are especially necessary. As in my first years at the 
trade, I had a great deal of practice drilling by hand, 
and with drills that were always breaking or being too 
soft, consequently putting the hole through often by 
main strength and energy, and other times with the 
drill squeaking by losing its cutting edge on the corners 
of the bit after drilling a few holes. 

A great many blacksmiths prefer using machine- 
made drills rather than make a flat drill, because they 
say a flat drill will not do the work of a machine drill, 
and if they are asked the reason why they will say that 
the ones they buy in a hardware store are secret 
tempered or give some other reason, and often they 
will reply : "I don 't know why. ' ' Now I wish to say 
to the reader that the author once made a flat drill 
that drilled 200 holes through a plate of hard metal V2 
inch thick, and 40 holes through a plate of steel, at two 
grindings, without redressing. Will any machine-made 
drill do better ? I will explain, although I mention one 
drill that did this amount of work. It was not tempered 
through guess work, neither did I strike the right 
temper by accident as some readers may think, as I 
will make any flat drill do the work of a machine-made 
drill, and I will go one better, as I will make a flat drill 
go through hard material which a machine-made drill 
will not penetrate. Reader, if you are an ordinary 
mechanic you can make a flat drill to do as well, if you 
will follow the instructions given in this chapter. 

Making a Flat Drill. 

Good tool steel of 75 points carbon will do for all 
ordinary drills, but for extremely hard drilling, steel 



68 



THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 



of a higher carbon, say 90 points or 1 per cent, will be 
best. When making a flat drill, for example % iiich in 
diameter, naturally the bit of the drill will be forged 
by making flat the end of a round piece of steel, but 
in forging the bit, do so if possible, by striking the 
bit edgewise as little as possible, and never try to forge 
the cutting edge of the bit, but cut off at right angles 
with a thin hot or splitting chisel on a piece of flat iron 
or copper. (This will keep the chisel from coming in 
contact with the hard face of the anvil, which would 
readily dull the cutting edge of the chisel.) Now strike 
the flat surface of the bit a couple of hard blows on 
each side while still at a low heat. 

To have a fast cutting drill, the bit should be bent 
a little at right angles to form what is known as a 
lip, as in Figure 23, No. 1. Do this at a low heat (not 



V 



b 




Fig. 23. Illustrating front and side views of flat drills, for 
hard and soft material. 



exceeding a low cherry red), after the hammering has 
been done on the flat surface, by placing it a little over 
the edge of the anvil and then striking it with the ham- 
mer. This shape of a bit will cut soft metal much 
quicker and with greater ease than if left perfectly flat, 
and v/ill equal any twist drill for fast cutting. Should 
the bit be a little too wide for the right size of the drill 



i 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 69 

or the edges a little uneven, after being hammered and 
the lip formed, take it to the vise and file (or grind) 
on the cutting edge, but be careful to have both sides 
of the extreme point of the bit at the same angle, or the 
drill will not cut even and also cause all the strain to 
be placed on one cutting edge, which will have a ten- 
dency to break the drill if under heavy pressure. 

Harden at a low even heat by dipping deep in the 
hardening bath, now polish, and draw the temper over 
the fire to a purple, making sure that the corners of the 
bit are the same temper as the point (as some black- 
smiths allow the temper to run down, after not dipping 
deep enough in the bath to harden, and so the point of 
the drill is tempered while the corners are soft on ac- 
count of the temper running down so rapidly). A drill 
that is made after these directions will do a great 
amount of work without regrinding if plenty of oil is 
kept on the cutting edge when drilling wrought iron or 
steel, east iron requires no oil. 

When drilling excessively hard material, such as 
tempered saw plate, chilled metal, etc., a perfectly flat 
iron drill, as No, 2, Figure 23, will be best, but it must 
not be drawn out so thin as a drill which is to drill soft 
material, and the cutting edge should not have so much 
bevel, draw the temper to a light straw. If this is found 
to be too soft, harden and draw no temper. Should this 
fail, heat the metal and lay a piece of brimstone on 
the exact spot which is to be drilled. But in heating 
tempered saw plate, casehardened plow mouldboards,' 
etc., use as small a fire as possible so as not to draw the 
temper or hardness over more surface than just what is 
needed to drill the hole. 

Thick bars of slate are very difficult to drill, espe- 
cially when drilling such small holes as ^ inch diame- 



70 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 

ter. When drilling small holes in slate, make a drill 
somewhat after the same way as for drilling hard metal 
but temper to a dark blue, having very little clearance, 
and when drilling, clean the dust out of the hole often, 
and occasionally dipping the drill in water to keep it 
from becoming hot and drawing the temper. 

Hand-Made Twist Drills. 

It is possible to make twist drills by being forged by 
hand, but requires a little skill. But by following these 
instructions there will be no difficulty after making the 
first one, and drills made after the following method 
will be superior and outwear any twist drill that can 
be purchased in a hardware store. 

To make a %-inch twist drill, take a piece of 14-inch 
round steel, heat and flatten out to i/4-inch thickness 
and allowing it to widen out 3-16 wider than the steel, 
and the same length as the drill is to be. The twist is 
then put in by holding it at a bevel on the anvil while at 
a deep yellow heat, but be careful not to put in too 
short a twist ; better put in a long twist, as it will get 
shorter as the drill is finished. Now take a low red heat 
the entire length of the twist, then with a very light 
hammer forge the twisted flutes edgeways, beginning at 
the back and following gradually towards the point. 
By this operation the flutes will widen on the outside 
while the centre will remain thin. By hammering lightly 
at a low heat the drill will come to the required shape 
and be perfectly round. If the hollow grooves are more 
or less uneven, file them out with a small round file, but 
be sure that the corners of the bit will cut the full size 
of the drill when ground. 

Harden the full length of the twist, polish bright, and 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 



71 



draw the temper to a purple by drawing back and forth 
over the fire. 

Making a Twist Reamer. 

Of all the different kinds and shapes of reamers, h 
twist reamer properly made, takes the lead for fast and 
easy cutting. But like a hand-made twist drill requires 




Fig. 24. Illustrating how reamer is forged, before 
being twisted. 



To make one (for example % inch in 



a little skill. 

diameter), take a piece of % inch round steel. First 
forge the shank to go into the brace, then draw down 
round and tapered to about 3 inches in length, having it 
% inch in diameter at the large end and 5-16 inch at 
the small end. Then flatten out to i/4 inch thickness at 
the large end and Vs inch at the small end. To put in 
the twist commence at the large end which will be best 




Fig. 25. The twisted reamer completed 

done in a vise by the use of a wrench, but the twist in 
the small end can be done with the hammer by holding 
at a bevel on the anvil, then hammer as mentioned in 
making a twist drill until the reamer comes to the shape 
required. But bear in mind the twist is put in to the 
left, while to cut the reamer is turned to the right. 



72 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 

The cutting edge of the reamer is illustrated by ''a, 
a, a, a, " Figure 25. But back from the cutting edge to 
the groove shown at "b, b, b," when filing should be 
left a little smaller which will act as clearance thus 
allowing the extreme cutting edge to come in contact 
more readily with the work. 

Harden as a twist drill and temper to a purple. 
Should the twist be put in a reamer as in a twist drill 
(which is put in to the right), the reamer will draw into 
the material too fast, and be liable to break it. Also 
bear in mind not to give too much clearance or the cut- 
ting edge will take hold of the material too readily and 
stick, for a %-inch reamer 1-32 clearance will be plenty 
and for smaller sizes less will do. When filing on the 
cutting edge have a thin flat iron plate with different 
size of holes in it to form a gauge and so regulate the 
clearance. File out the hollow grooves very smoothly 
and evenly so as not to leave any thick spots in the cut- 
ting edge. 

The Polishing Stick. 

A polishing stick is made by taking a piece of pine or 
other soft wood, which should be round, about 1% inches 
in diameter and 15 inches long. Wrap a coarse sheet 
of emery cloth or sandpaper around it, then drive in 
two or three carpet tacks to hold it in place. This will 
be much handier than a piece of loose sandpaper. Do 
not use sandpaper after it becomes worn smooth, as it 
will not brighten the steel satisfactory in order to see 
the correct temper. 



CHAPTER IV. 

How to draw out an axe — Mill picks — Butcher knives — Fine 
springs — Dirt picks. 

How to Draw Out, Harden and Temper an Axe That 
Will Cleave a Hemlock Knot. 

Almost every country blacksmith has had more or 
less axes to draw out (as the saying is), but there are 
very few who have a reputation of being able to dress 
an axe so that it will cleave a hemlock knot, without 
breaking or otherwise having the cutting edge bent 
over. And yet how many axes have been thrown into 
the scrap pile, after coming through the process the 
blacksmith gave it, by being cracked sometimes half 
way across the bit and occasionally a piece dropping 
right out, and every blacksmith who has had any expe- 
rience repairing axes will know this statement to be 
true. I have known farmers and lumbermen who 
owned axes which were known to cleave a hemlock knot 
and still hold a good cutting edge, refuse to part with 
them when offered three times the amount that would 
purchase a new axe. I have had farmers offer me a 
dollar to dress one axe, while they could go to a hard- 
ware store and buy a new one for the same amount. 
"Why?" Because it would hold a keen edge and they 
could rely on it, and they were not afraid of breaking 
a piece out of the bit when chopping hard or frozen 
timber. 

I remember drawing out an axe for a farmer, and 

73 



74 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 

after grinding it I told him to try it on all the hem- 
lock knots he could find. But being a little suspicious 
he asked me if I would go to the woods with him, which 
was but a short distance from the shop, and I consented 
to go. After reaching the woods I found some large 
knots and told him to go ahead and try his axe, but he 
hesitated and made no offer to do so, so I took the axe 
from him and chopped into a knot, and after striking 
a few good blows I handed him back the axe. The 
first thing he did was to examine the cutting edge as he 
was expecting to see a piece missing from it, but it was 
all there the same as it left the grindstone. Imagine 
his surprise. I saw him a few days after and the first 
thing he said was: "I have been using the axe ever 
since and cutting every hemlock knot I could find and 
the axe is as good as ever." Reader, I am not relating 
this experience to fill up an extra page in this book, but 
to impress on your mind the benefit of making good 
tools, and in this case especially an axe. 

I will explain the way the ordinary blacksmith goes 
about to draw out an axe. He gets a low heat on the 
bit and commences to hammer it and entirely on the 
cutting edge. If the axe gets too wide he turns it up 
edgewise and drives it back straight again, sometimes 
loosening the steel, but works away until the axe is 
forged into a shape to suit him. Now he hardens and 
tempers it after this fashion, he places it in the fire, gets 
one corner at a white heat while the other is barely red, 
dips it in a tub of dirty water about an inch deep (but 
if it does not crack in the water it will shortly after). 
Then the temper runs down sometimes one color, other 
times another, while on the other hand the temper runs 
down so rapidly that the corners become soft and only 
the centre of the bit is tempered. 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 



75 



The causes for the axe cracking are — by uneven and 
overheating which is the main cause, while another 
cause will result from improper forging or hammering 
the steel unevenly when at a low heat, and so drawing 
or working the steel on the outside while the inside has 
not moved, and between the two there is a sort of tear- 
ing operation going on which will increase the tendency 
to crack when hardening. 

Now let us dress an axe properly as it should be done. 
An axe that is rather thick is best for the process, as it 
gives us stock to work on. After preparing the fire, 
having the coal well charred and large enough to heat 




Fig. 26. Lumberman's chopping axe, dotted lines, a and b, 
indicate how to avoid strains in the steel when dressing. 



the axe evenly the full width of the bit or cutting edge, 
heat evenly to a deep yellow; now commence to draw 
out by hammering, beginning at the cutting edge, going 
all the way across the bit, as indicated by dotted lines 
a, Figure 26, then turn over, going over this side the 



76 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 

same way until the heat begins to get low and the edge 
is drawn as thin as is necessary for an ordinary chop- 
ping axe. Now we will take another heat, this time 1% 
inches back and to a good yellow heat, but instead of 
going over the edge as before, go back li/4 inches from 
the cutting edge, as indicated at b, Figure 26, and ham- 
mer both sides the same. Now the axe has widened out, 
but instead of turning it up edgewise and striking it 
with the hammer, cut it off with a chisel to the proper 
width. (A little narrower will be best as the axe is not 
finished yet, and the steel will come as wide as is nec- 
essary in the finishing stage and will also save filing.) 
Now heat the axe again, this time to a very low heat, 
just hot enough so that it will be plainly seen to be red 
when put in a dark place, and hammer entirely and 
evenly all over the flat surface and both sides the same 
for 1% inches back after the same fashion as the first 
time, but this time hold the axe solid and level on the 
anvil and do not hammer the steel after it gets too cold, 
otherwise the tenacity that is being put in the steel with 
the hammer will be destroyed. The axe is now drawn 
out and after cooling off and filing the edges smooth, it 
is ready for the hardening and tempering. When ham- 
mering the axe in the finishing stage, about 15 good 
blows on each side will be enough. If the hammering is 
properly done at the right heat the steel will show a 
bright black gloss. 

To harden the axe, heat the bit slowly and very 
evenly not less than 1% inches back, to a cherry red or 
just enough to harden, dip deep into the hardening bath 
not less than 1% inches, raising and lowering so as to 
soften gradually, thus causing no strain in the steel. 
Polish the hardened part bright, but as there is not 
enough heat left in the axe to force the temper to run 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKJER 77 

down, draw it by holding well over the fire, heating 
very slowly and moving back and forth so as to insure 
an even temper (but be careful and do not let the ex- 
treme thin cutting edge draw the temper first), until 
the whole bit of the axe for 1^ inches back will show 
a light blue^ then cool ofl; and grind. 

An axe that is forged, hammered, hardened and 
tempered after these directions, will be free from all 
cracks and will hold a very keen cutting edge, and if 
broken in use will be done by carelessness. "When dress- 
ing an axe, the shape of the bit will depend upon the 
user, as some want a bit very rounding, others want 
the bit almost square. 

When dressing double bitted axes, dress both ends 
before undertaking to harden and temper. "When hard- 
ening and tempering be careful not to draw the temper 
in the first end when heating to harden the last end, 
but place the tempered end in water occasionally. A 
good chopping axe should be slightly thicker in the 
centre of the bit than at the corners, which will burst 
the chips more readily. 

Mill Picks. 

Mill picks are something that are very little under- 
stood by the average blacksmith, and I have known 
millers to send them 500 miles, in order that they might 
get them dressed and hardened properly. And as al- 
most every blacksmith would like to know how, I will 
give the process. When making mill picks use steel of 
medium high carbon, say 90 points, as mill picks require 
harder steel than ordinary tools, as they have to cut 
very hard material, while the blows are very light. 

There are different sizes of mill picks which depend 



78 



THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 



on the miller who is going to use them, ranging in 
weight from 2 to 4 pounds, but the medium-sized pick 
of about 3 pounds weight is most used. There are also 
different styles of mill picks, some have an eye punched 
in them for a handle, while others are made to fit in a 
socket. The main object, however, is to have a mill 
pick drawn out thin and hardened properly, in order 
to do a great amount of cutting and hold a good cut- 
ting edge, without being ground often or having the 
corners continually breaking off, which is dangerous to 
the miller's hands and eyes. 

Now supposing some picks are to be dressed. The 



Fig. 27. Correct shape of mill pick. 



first thing to do is to draw the hardness by heating one 
end to a low red, before dressing the other end, other- 
wise there will be a tendency of the end held in the 
tongs to break off, when dressing the opposite end, un- 
less the picks are very thick. Heat the end to be 
dressed or drawn out, to a deep yellow heat (so that the 
steel will be worked clear through, thus leaving no 
strains which would afterwards cause cracks), draw it 
out thin to 3-16 of an inch thick on the cutting edge, 
tapering to % of an inch thick, 1% inch back, at the 
same time having the cutting edge barely as wide as 



TOOLSMITIl AND STEELWORI^R 79 

the body of the mill pick. Now heat again to a low 
dark red, have a hammer weighing not less than 3 
pounds, hold the pick perfectly solid and flat on the 
anvil without raising or lowering it, and strike 5 or 6 
good blows on the flat side, making sure that the ham- 
mer will fall on the extreme cutting edge, then turn 
over and go over that side the same way. Do not 
strike every blow in the same place but go over the 
whole flat surface of both sides evenly and do not ham- 
mer the steel after it becomes black, but heat again to a 
very dull red and strike 3 or 4 more blows on each side 
evenly, and it is done. If the edges have spread out a 
little wide or uneven, do not attempt to strike one 
blow on the edge, but if necessary to have them 
straight, file or grind, although it makes no difference 
should the cutting edge of the mill pick be a little 
wide, as all the miller wants is to have them cut good. 
Now one end is dressed, go over the other end exactly 
the same way (before undertaking to harden), the cut- 
ting edge is filed on the same as for an ordinary cold 
chisel. 

To harden a mill pick, heat evenly to a low cherry 
red or just hot enough to harden at least 1% inches 
back from the cutting edge, then plunge into the hard- 
ening bath and cool until entirely cold. Then harden 
the opposite end after the same method, but be care- 
ful not to draw any temper in the end already hard- 
ened, and the pick is all ready for use. Do not draw 
any temper on miill picks as they will not be too hard 
if properly hardened. When hardening mill picks, 
harden one end at a time and never try to harden both 
ends at once. The right size of steel to use when mak- 
ing ordinnry mill picks will be l"'/2 inches square, but 
for smaller sizes li/i inches square will do. 



80 THE TWENTIETH CENTUEY 

Butcher Knives. 

There is a saying that has been going the rounds for 
a long time, which is: "Always use a file to make a 
butcher knife," but any blacksmith who believes in 
this saying or theory does very little thinking for him- 
self. I have seen dozens of butchers' knives made from 
files, but what were they like? They were stiff, with- 
out any spring to them, were easily broken and would 
not hold a good cutting edge, on account of the teeth 
in the file, and to have a good butcher knife it must be 
just the opposite — it must hold a keen edge and in- 
stead of breaking, it must be very pliable, as whale- 
bone. Although butcher knives are made almost en- 
tirely by machinery, machine or factory-made knives 
will not hold the keen cutting edge that a hand-made 
knife will when made from good steel and properly 
hardened and tempered. A great many machine-made 
butcher knives are made from poor and cheap steel, 
consequently they are sold cheap. 

To make a butcher knife, use steel of about 75 point 
carbon. The proper size of steel to use for an ordinary 
size butcher knife will be % by % inches. After the 
shape of the shank has been decided on, which may be 
flat, .as a. Figure 28, forged or square as in Figure 
29, Now, for example, we make a knife 8 inches long 
in the blade. The first thing to do (after cutting off 
the steel the right length) will be, take a chisel and cut 
off at right angles, as c in Figure 28, to form the point. 
Now crook the steel edgewise in a circular shape as 
Figure 28, the depth of the crook being about % an 
inch, then get a deep red heat half the length of the 
blade and draw to a thin edge, at the same time ham- 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 81 

mering evenly from both sides of the steel, beginning 
at b, Figure 28, on the inside of the crook, then heat 
the other half, and draw the edge until the point is 
reached. The crook that was put in the steel edgewise 




Piece of steel bent, drilled and pointed to make 
butcher knife. 

has all come out and the knife is straight. Now flatten 
the point, making it thin and a little wider than the 
body of the knife. Never try to forge the point of the 
knife, but cut to shape with a chisel. Now take a very 
low heat the length of the blade of the knife, and ham- 
mer equally on both flat sides of the cutting edge to 
refine and pack the steel. Now heat again to the same 
low heat, but instead of hammering the cutting edge 




F=^ 



Fig. 29. Illustrating carving knife, without handle, and forged 
with a square shank. 

hammer in the centre of the blade, both sides evenly 
and the full length of the blade. Cool off and after 
filing the edges straight it is ready for hardening. 

In hardening the knife have the fire a long shape, 
which will heat more of the knife at once. Now put 
the knife in the fire with the cutting edge downward, 
and move the knife back and forth so as to get a very 
even heat the full length of the blade, just hot enough 
to harden. Then plunge lengthwise with the cutting 



82 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 

edge down into the hardening bath and cool entirely. 
Now, if the knife has been forged and hammered evenly 
the whole length of the blade, it will not come out of 
the hardening bath perfectly straight, but there will 
be a crook in it. For explanation we will say there is 
a crook in it. Now take a polishing stick and brighten 
one side of the knife. To draw the temper, place flat- 



Fig. 30. Ordinary butcher's knife. 

wise over the fire (do not place the knife directly on 
the. hot coals, but instead, hold about 2 inches above), 
with the brightened side up. Heat very slowly, at the 
same time moving back and forth to insure a very even 
temper; draw to a pale blue, but before cooling place 



<— i=t^^ 



Fig. 81. Straight pointed knife. 

the knife on the anvil and take the crook out by strik- 
ing it with a hammer, then cool, and it is ready for the 
grindstone. The reason that the crook was taken out 
so easily is, when the knife was being heated to harden 
only two-thirds of the width of the blade was heated 
enough to harden, consequently the back of the knife 
remained soft. This, with what heat was in the knife 
after the temper was drawn, allowed the knife to bend 
without springing back. 

To have good success when making butcher knives, 
bear in mind to forge and hammer evenly on both flat 
sides, have a yellow heat when drawing the cutting 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 83 

idge, and a very low heat when hammermg for the last 
time, and never attempt to strike the knife edgewise in 
the last hammering. Remember that the hardening of 
the knife must be carefully done so as to harden the 
full length of the blade without leaving any unhard- 
ened spots; also, as much pains must be taken when 
tempering so as to have it evenly drawn and so avoid 
having hard or soft places. 

How to Make Gun, Revolver, Traps and All Fine 
Springs. 

Springs perform a very important part in mechani- 
cal appliances, and especially guns, revolvers, and traps 
of all kinds, but to make a good spring the process 
must be thoroughly understood. When making springs, 
steel of about 60 points carbon is best, and never use 
steel for spring making that exceeds 75 point carbon, 
and bear in mind when making a spring to make it as 
wide and as thin as possible according to the work it is 
to do. 

When making springs, as gun springs, in the first 
place forge the spring perfectly straight, but leave it 
a little less than the right width, also leave it a little 
thicker than the spring is to be when finished. Now 
heat the whole spring from end to end to a very low 
heat (say a dark dull red), and hammer with heavy 
blows evenly on both flat sides, being careful to keep 
the spring very straight without hammering the spring 
edgewise. As the hammering of the spring on the flat 
sides, when at a low heat, is to refine and pack the steel 
which is one of the greatest secrets in successful spring 
making. To bend the spring, heat it to a blood red 
(never exceeding a Ioav cherry red), where the bend is 



84 



THE TWENTIETH CENTUEY 



to be, then bend to the proper shape. If at any time 
it is necessary to make a spring with a crook or offset 
in it edgewise, the crook must be put in the steel before 
the last hammering is done, so that the steel may be 
refined and packed by the hammer, thus increasing 
the tenacity of the spring, but do not hammer the 
steel below a certain heat, as the tenacity of the steel 
will be ruined when hammered too cold. 

There are different ways of tempering springs, but 
only the simple and most successful methods are given. 
To harden, heat the entire spring in the blaze of the 



Fig. 32. Illustrating the 

elastic strength of a 

well made spring. 




fire, very evenly to a cherry red or just enough to 
harden, then plunge into the hardening bath and cool 
off "dead cold." Then polish it bright. To temper, 
hold the spring edgewise 2 inches above the fire, and 
do not blow the fire, but heat very slowly, moving 
the spring back and forth and occasionally turning 
over to insure a very even temper, watching very close- 
ly until the spring has drawn to a very pale blue, al- 
most grey. Do not cool off in water as other tools after 
the temper is drawn, but lay it down somewhere away 
from a draft of cold air allowing it to cool off slowly 
on its own accord. This is the authoT's favorite way 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 85 

of tempering a spring, and a spring as Figure 32, made 
after these directions, which for example, is 2 inches 
long and 1V4 inches between the ends c c, 1-16 thick 
and 5-lG wide, can be bent as indicated by dotted lines 
at a, until the ends meet, without fear of breaking or 
remaining bent, but instead will spring back exactly 
the same distance apart, as the ends were before being 
bent. 

Still another good way of tempering a spring, after 
being hardened as formerly mentioned, and which will 
save polishing. Hold the spring over the fire, placing 
it in a dark place now and again, until it shows a very 
dark red, just visible to the eye. Then lay down and 



Fig. 33. Showing how trap springs are forged before being 
bent to shape. 

allow it to cool off on its own accord, but in tempering 
a spring after this method have a dark place close to 
the fire. 

When hardening or tempering i spring of any kind, 
hold it with the tongs at the extreme end, as the spring 
if held by the tongs in the centre, the place held di- 
rectly between the tongs will have a great tendency to 
remain soft, which would spoil the spring and cause it 
to bend out of its proper shape when put into use. And 
bear in mind to harden and temper the whole spring 
evenly from end to end. A great many blacksmiths 
harden a spring in oil, but the error of this way is, the 
steel must be heated to a higher heat to harden in oil 
than water or brine, which is sure to decrease the elas- 
tic strength of the spring. In large factories where 



86 I'HE TWENTIETH CENTURY 

springs are made in great quantities, they are heated to 
harden, in hot lead or in a furnace, while the temper is 
drawn in boiling oil, tallow, or hot air. The degree of 
heat required to draw the temper is registered by a 
pyrometer connected with the vat or furnace, which in- 
sures a very fine and evenly tempered spring. 

"When making trap springs, or springs for a similar 
purpose after the fashion of Figure 32, have the spring 
at b a little wider than the rest of the spring and give 
it a short bend, which will increase the strength of the 
spring. Fine flat springs which have a long gradual 
bend when in use (especially for very light purposes), 
require no hardening or tempering as there will be 
enough spring to them, by simply hammering them 
squally on both sides when at a low heat. 

Dirt Picks. 

All tools of this description are used a great deal by 
railroad laborers, farmers and others, who work among 
gravel, hard ground, etc. Dirt picks are principally 
made from iron, while the ends are laid with steel 
which should be good ordinary tool steel of 75 points 
carbon. In dressing the ends, follow the instructions 
given in making or dressing a cold chisel, making sure 
to dip deep into the hardening bath, when hardening 
so as to give a foundation back from the cutting edge 
and keep the points or ends from bending and more 
especially if the pick is drawn out very thin, temper to 
a light blue. 

For laying picks, I will give some instructions to in- 
sure good results and so produce a good weld. The 
steel for this purpose should be %-inch octagon or 
square, for ordinary picks, but if the picks are of a 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 



87 



large size larger steel should be used. In welding of 
this kind alwaj's insert the steel into the iron, and 
don't make too long a weld, as a short one of reason- 
able length is best and much easier made. Always have 
plenty of stock when making a weld, so that the weld 
will need no upsetting in order to bring it to the right 
size. 

Now draw down the end of the steel that is to be in- 
serted in the iron in forming the weld, to a tapered or 
V-shape, and drawn to a thin square edge and having 
it at least ^ of an inch wider than the weld is to be ; 
cut a little piece out of the center after a V-shape and 
put some nicks in the beveled part of the steel with the 
corner of the chisel, making it very rough as No. 1, 
Figure 34, Cutting a piece out of the center of the 





Fig. 34. Illustrating how ends are forged when laying dirt 
picks, in order to make a successful weld. 



steel enables it to go well up into the iron. Take the 
iron part which is to form the weld, after heating, split 
it with a hot chisel as far back as required, open the 
ends and draw down to a thin edge as No. 2, Figure 34. 
Now take a good heat on the iron and insert the steel 
while at a low heat into the opening of the iron, driv- 
ing the steel well up into the iron, then hammer the 



88 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 

ends of the iron well down over the steel. (The nicks 
that were put in the steel will enable it to stay in the 
iron much better during the welding heat, than if left 
perfectly smooth.) The pick is now ready for the 
welding heat. Have the fire clean with plenty of well 
charred coal, heat the place to make the weld to a 
cherry red, then place plenty of fine powdered borax 
on it, then heat to a welding heat as high as the steel 
will stand, but no more. Bring from the fire and strike 
the end against the side of the anvil or strike the end 
with the hammer, driving the steel well up into the 




Fig, 35. How ends are placed together, showing plenty of 
stock to make the weld. 

iron, then strike the first few blows (to make the weld) 
lightly and on the flat surfaces of the iron, then ham- 
mer hard and fast and from all sides alike until the 
weld is completed. If the weld is made after these di- 
rections, it will be perfectly smooth and solid and will 
show no trace or opening where the steel was inserted 
in the iron. The reason it will show no opening in the 
weld is because the steel was left wider than the iron 
and when being welded was driven back, filling the 
opening, that otherwise would have been there and so 
leaving the weld perfectly smooth and as solid as one 
piece. 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 89 

Bear in mind that when making a weld after this de • 
scription, have the iron well down over the steel as in 
Figure 35, and so leave no opening to allow dirt and 
other ingredients to get in when taking the welding 
heat, as steel will not weld successfully if any foreign 
matter gets in between the welding surfaces, no matter 
whether the weld consists of iron and steel or two 
pieces of steel. Also remember when taking the weld- 
ing heat to keep plenty of fine powdered borax on it, so 
as not to allow the steel to become dry in the fire, and 
when making the weld strike the first three or four 
blows lightly, as the steel will unite more readily, than 
if the first few blows are struck very heavy. 

When welding two pieces of steel and one piece is 
harder than the other, always if possible insert the 
hard piece into the soft piece, otherwise the steel is 
more apt to get overheated. And also bear in mind to 
take the welding heat of the harder piece, instead of 
the softer piece. 



CHAPTER V. 

Machinists' tools — The use of asbestos and clay when harden, 
ing tools — Boilermakers' tools. 

Machinists' Tools. 

Connected with the machinist 's trade is a wide range 
of fine and complicated tools. Among them being lathe 
and planer tools, milling cutters, taps, dies, reamers, 
etc., and the toolsmith in a large shop who can forge, 
harden and temper these tools satisfactory will have a 
great many friends among the machinists, but should 
the toolsmith be otherwise, there is nothing that tries 
the temper and patience so much as to have a number 
of machinists continually around the fire and each one 
making a complaint that the tool would not do this, 
and it would not do that, etc. 

When making lathe and planer tools, there is no def- 
inite rule to go by "as to the shape," with the excep- 
tion of a few standard or ordinary tools, as shown in 
Figures 36 to 46, as the machinist has so many jobs of 
a different nature that he requires a tool of a special 
shape to suit the work, which he explains to the tool- 
smith or gives him a drawing of it, and sometimes a 
pattern of it made from wood. Steel of 1 per cent or 
100 point carbon is best for making lathe and planer 
tools, as these tools do their work by steady pressure. 
But nevertheless they must be properly forged, hard- 
ened and tempered, in order to stand the great strain 
that is continually bearing against them, and also to 

90 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 91 

hold a good cutting edge in order to save time, and do 
work of a very exact and skillful nature, especially in 
the finishing stage. 

Lathe tools of a flat surface, such as bent cutting off 
tools and side tools, must be forged to shape and the 
offset put in before the last hammering is done. When 
making cutting off tools and other tools of a similar 
nature, always give plenty of clearance as illustrated 
in Figure 38, which shows the cutting edge a a little 




Fig. 36. Two ways of forging a diamond point lathe tool. 

wider than b, also wider than c, as shown in front 
view of the same figure, and bear in mind when forg- 
ing the tool leave it a little wider at the cutting edge 
than the exact width, as the hammering on the flat sur- 
face after the offset is put in, will bring the cutting 
edge to the right width. To more fully explain let us 
suppose the cutting edge of the tool is to be 14 of an 
inch in width, but in order to refine and pack the steel, 
we will have the cutting edge 5-16 of an inch wide be- 
fore undertaking to hammer on the flat surface. If 



92 



THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 



the hammering does not flatten the steel to exactly the 
right size and so leave the cutting edge a trifle wider, 
so much the better, as the tool will have a little stock 
for grinding. 

All lathe and planer tools for ordinary work should 
be quenched or hardened about one inch back and ac- 




Fig. 37. The straight cutting off, or parting tool. 




Fig. 38. The left hand bent cutting off tool. 




Fig. 39. The right hand bent cutting off tool. 

cording to the cutting edge, as illustrated by dotted 
lines in Figures 36 to 45, and tempered to a dark straw 
or copper color. But should the tools have to cut very 
hard cast iron or other very hard material, harden and 
draw no temper. Should the tool still fail to cut the 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKEB 



93 



metal, use equal parts of powdered cyanide of potas- 
sium and prussiate of potash. To use this compound 
heat the tool as hot as if it was to be hardened, then 
place the heated, cutting edge of the tool into the pow- 
der, reheat again to a proper hardening heat and 
plunge into the hardening bath and cool off entirely. 




Fig. 40. The spring tool. 

When hardening large tools such as square corrugat- 
ing tools, and which have very fine teeth in the cutting 
end, as indicated in Figure 46, make sure when 
heating that the center of the cutting face is as hot as 
the outside or corners. And never heat carelessly or 
too fast, so that the corners will be at a white heat. 



7 



Fig. 41. The left hand side tool. 



while the center is barely red. But heat slowly and 
very evenly, until the whole face of the cutting end is 
just hot enough to harden, then plunge into the hard- 
ening bath and cool off entirely. Draw no temper. 



94 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 

Heat slowly and evenly until the whole face of the 
cutting end is just hot enough to harden, then plunge 
in the hardening bath and cool off. Ordinary corru- 
gating tools require no temper drawn. 



r 



Fig. 42. The inside boring tool. 



Air Hardening Steels for Lathe and Planer Tools. 

Cast steel for lathe and planer tools is to a certain 
extent done away with in large shops by the use of air 
or self-hardening steels. A certain amount of this 
steel is manufactured in sizes so that no forging of the 
tool is required, and by the use of a patent toolholder 
(made especially for certain sizes of the steel) is su- 



(\ 



r 



Fig. 43. The inside ordinary thread tool. 

perior to a hand forged tool in some respects. But the 
toolsmith has an important work to do connected with 
air hardening steel, as he is called upon to cut it off in 
lengths and harden it, besides. As there is a limit to 
the sizes that are manufactured for immediate use the 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 



95 



steel must be forged to the shape of the tool, while the 
forging and hardening of air hardening steel is some- 
what of a different nature to cast tool steel. Air hard- 
ening steel is not as a rule used for anything but for 
roughing lathe and planer tools, it being too hard to 
make into any tool which is to do its work by the use 



n 



-d 



■^v 



Fig. 44. The inside square thread tool. 

of a hammer and also to make into any expensive tool 
such as milling cutters, as on account of its extreme 
hardness it cannot be machined or worked satisfactory. 
There are several makes and brands of air hardening 
steel, but some of the leading makes may be mentioned 
as, Sanderson's, Jessop's, Novo, Mushet and Blue Chip. 




Fig. 45. The broad-nose or finishing tool. 

When forging these brands into tools do not heat the 
steel above a bright yellow, especially Mushet or San- 
derson's, but the steel must be heated evenly clear 
through the bar, and unless the tool is to be of a fine 
nature do the forging under the steam hammer, as the 
steel is too hard to forge with the hammer and sledge. 
The forging should be done as quickly as possible, 



96 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 

while the heat is in the steel, and never attempt to 
bend or crook the steel when at a low heat, as it will 
be apt to crack or break in two, so be careful to have 
the steel at least at a deep red heat when it is to be 
bent. 

"When any new brand comes in the shop be careful 
to look at the directions on the bar, as some brands are 
hardened a little different from others. For example, 
the cutting edge of a tool made from Blue Chips is 
hardened by being heated to a white heat until it com- 
mences to melt, when small bubbles or blisters will 





Fig. 46. The corrugating tool. 

form on the steel, then it is placed in a blast of cold 
air. To harden Mushet steel heat to a deep yellow and 
cool off in a blast of cold air, Sanderson's and Jessop's 
after the same process. Novo steel is hardened by heat- 
ing it to a white heat, then cooled off in a blast of cold 
air or may be quenched in oil. 

When hardening steel with a blast of cold air, have 
the pipe or nozzle (which conveys the air) as close to 
the fire as possible, and when cooling off the tool, have 
some arrangement to hold the point or cutting edge di- 
rectly in front of the blast. If this is not done the tool 
is apt to become turned to one side by the force of the 
blast. Also bear in mind if the steel is heated to a 



I 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 97 

melting heat, as Blue Chip, be careful not to put the 
blast on too strong at first or it will blow the point off 
the tool. Instead put on the blast light and gradual 
until the steel begins to cool a little. Then turn on the 
blast to its full capacity and keep it on the tool until it 
is perfectly cold. 

A great deal is to be learnt in working air hardening 
steel in order to get the best results. But for the begin- 
ner who has had no experience, follow up the direc- 
tions given by the manufacturer. Should the directions 
fail to give good results do some experimenting. For 
illustration Novo brand of steel will give good results 
if heated to a white heat, then plunged into oil or boil- 
ing water, while Blue Chip will sometimes give better 
results if (after being heated to a melting point and 
cooled off in a blast of cold air) it is heated to a very 
low black red heat and allowed to cool of its own ac- 
cord. Yet there are other brands of steel which are 
hardened by heating to a light yellow heat, then placed 
in a cool place and allowed to cool slowly of its own 
accord. 

Never allow Mushet steel to come in contact with 
water or it will crack, although no visible heat can be 
seen in the steel. Figure 47 illustrates a heavy rough- 
ing tool, made from air hardening steel for turning 
locomotive tires, car axles, etc. Dotted line at a indi- 
cates how far back from the cutting edge, as b, the 
steel is to be heated when hardening. All roughing 
tools are made after the same shape. Bear in mind 
when forging air hardening steel, never try to forge it 
below a low cherry red and if at any time it is neces- 
sary to cut a bar into lengths, do not try to cut it cold, 
as it must be heated. 



98 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 

How to Anneal Air Hardening Steel. 

Sometimes, although seldom the toolsmith is called 
upon to anneal air hardening steel, so that it may be 
turned or planed. This class of steel is very difficult to 
anneal on account of its extreme hardness. It must not 
be packed directly in slacked lime or ashes as east tool 
steel, as it will cool off too quickly. To anneal air hard- 
ening steel, use an air tight heavy iron box, place the 
steel inside the box, then heat altogether to a deep red 
heat, then pack the box deep into slacked lime or 
ashes. If an iron box cannot be obtained, use a heavy 
iron pipe or band large enough to accommodate the 



Fig. 47. Heavy roughing tool. 

steel, without having the steel project out through the 
end. Also have two heavy flat iron plates large enough 
to cover the end of the pipe. Place the steel in the 
pipe and heat the pipe, likewise the plates, as formerly 
mentioned, then pack the pipe into the lime in an up- 
right position, having one of the plates directly under 
the pipe, the other on top, which will keep the steel 
from coming in contact with the lime. By following 
this method the steel will keep hot a very long time. 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 99 

and thus give good results. To anneal a piece of 1-inch 
square air hardening steel will require from 12 to 15 
hours' time. 

Milling Cutters. 

These tools are very valuable to the machinist's 
trade, and the making of them requires great skill, val- 
uable time and good steel, which makes them very ex- 
pensive tools. If they are not properly forged and 
hardened there is a great loss. 

When forging a blank for a milling cutter (steel of 
about 90 point carbon is best) be sure and leave the 
blank a little larger every way than the exact size of 
the milling cutter when finished, as a machinist always 
prefers a little extra stock, which enables him to ma- 
chine the tool with greater ease and less caution than 
if forged to the exact size of the tool. When forging a 
milling cutter heat the steel evenly to a good yellow, 
but do not heat too fast or the outside or corners will 
be at a white heat while the inside is barely red, and 
by unevenly heating will cause strains which will pro- 
duce a tendency to crack when hardening the milling 
cutter. 

If the milling cutter is large forge it to shape under 
the steam hammer being careful to forge it evenly 
from all sides alike and so work the steel clear 
through, but as it becomes finished reduce the heat. 
Tools such as milling cutters which are either round or 
almost of an equal size, cannot be refined, as the steel 
will remain at its natural state, consequently it is not 
desirable to finish at quite so low a heat as those of a 
flat surface. But if the milling cutter is very thin and 



100 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 

flat then the steel may be refined by using a flatter on 
the flat surface while at a low heat. 

After forging the milling cutter it must be annealed, 
which operation must not be neglected, as the whole 
blank must be heated again slow and evenly to a blood 
red (never exceeding a cherry red), then packed deep 
into slacked lime, allowing it to remain there until 
cold. Have the annealing box large enough so that it 
will contain plenty of lime to keep the heated steel 
away from the air. If there have been any slight 
strains left in the steel by forging the annealing will 
take them out and make the steel soft so that it can be 
worked with ease by the machinist. 

The hardening of a milling cutter after it has been 
machined to shape, is the process that must not be over- 
looked, as in the hardening the toolsmith must either 
succeed or spoil the tool. The milling cutter must be 
hardened properly without cracking, so that when put 
into use it will do a great amount of cutting by holding 
a good cutting edge, and so it is necessary that the 
toolsmith use great care when heating for hardening. 
If there is no heating furnace in the shop, and the mill- 
ing cutter is to be heated for hardening in the coal or 
open fire^ too much care cannot be used. 

When heating to harden in the open fire have the 
coal well charred and the fire plenty large enough. The 
top of the fire should be perfectly flat and the whole 
surface a perfectly and very evenly heated mass, place 
the cutter (if after the shape as b, Figure 48) flatway 
on the top or surface of the fire, now heat very slowly 
and evenly and turning it over occasionally until it is 
heated to a very even low cherry red, or just enough to 
harden, then plunge it into the hardening bath edge- 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 101 

Ways from a vertical position, allowing it to remain 
deep in the bath until quite cold, then dry off and pol- 
ish bright. 

To temper the milling cutter, take two round bars of 
iron about two feet long and just large enough to go 
through the hole in the center of the milling cutter, 
put one end of each iron into the fire and heat to a 
white heat to about two inches back from the end or 
according to the thickness of the tool. Now take one 
of the irons (leaving the other in the fire) and place 
the heated end directly in the center of the milling cut- 
ter, holding there until the temper in the teeth has 
drawn to a dark straw color. If the iron cools to a low 
heat before the temper is drawn to the exact color use 
the other iron which w^as left in the fire to finish draw- 
ing the temper, then cool off. Should the milling cut- 
ter have very heavy teeth or if it is to cut very hard 
metal, it will not be necessary to draw any temper. 

If the milling cutter be to the shape and size, say 4 
inches long and 2V2 inches in diameter (or larger sizes) 
as a, Figure 48, a good way to heat for hardening in 
the open fire is to have a heavy iron pipe about 6 
inches long and plenty large enough for the cutter to 
go inside. A pipe about 1 inch wider than the diameter 
of the milling cutter will be about right. Place the pipe 
in the fire and build the coal on top of it, but do not 
build the fire over either end of the pipe. Instead leave 
the ends of the pipe open and do not allow the coal to 
get inside the pipe. By this method an opening is left 
clear through the fire. Heat the pipe to a bright cherry 
red the whole length, insert the milling cutter and hear, 
it to the necessary heat to harden, then plunge into the 
hardening bath from a vertical position. But when 
heating to harden a milling cutter which has very fine 



102 THE TWENTIETH CENTUEY 

teeth after this method, be very careful not to brnise 
the fine cutting edges of the teeth against the pipe. It 
is better to have some arrangement to hold the milling 





Pig. 48. Plain or ordinary milling cutters. 

cutter up from the pipe. An iron bar placed through 
the center of the cutter with a bearing under each end 
will keep the cutter from coming in contact with the 
pipe. 



I 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 103 



The Use of Asbestos and Clay, When Hardening Mill- 
ing Cutters and Other Tools. 

Very often a milling cutter is made with a thread 
through the center of the tool which must be kept soft, 
while the outside or teeth are hardened, and the way 
this process is accomplished is by the use of asbestos, 
which is packed well into the inside or thread, but 
make sure that the outside ends of the thread are well 
padded over without allowing the asbestos to come in 
contact with the cutting edges of the teeth of the mill- 
ing cutter. The asbestos is kept in place while harden- 
ing by the use of fine pliable wire, wrapped around the 
tool. After the hardening has been done and the asbes- 
tos taken out from the inside the thread will be quite 
soft. The reason the thread has remained soft while 
the teeth are hardened is because the water could not 
come in contact with the thread when being quenched, 
on account of the presence of the asbestos. 

I have saved a great many delicate and expensive 
milling cutters from cracking when hardening, by the 
use of asbestos. Take for example an angle end mill- 
ing cutter. That is made with a thin or delicate part 
extended from the main body of the tool. Now, al- 
though the tool may be very evenly heated and prop- 
erly hardened, it is still very liable to crack, and in 
some cases the thin or extended part will crack off in 
a solid ring. To stop a milling cutter of this kind from 
cracking, fill the hollow in the end, as in Figure 49,' 
with asbestos, being careful not to cover any of the 
cutting edges of the teeth and hold the asbestos in 
place by the use of fine wire, while hardening. The 
reason the tool will not crack is, when quenching to 



104 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 

harden only the teeth side comes in contact with the 
water which hardens, while the other side is kept soft 
as the asbestos keeps the water from coming in contact 
with the hot steel. 

Another example : Take a piece of steel 3 inches long 
and 1 inch thick, now an inch on each end is to be 
hardened, while the remaining inch in the center is to 
be kept soft, and to accomplish this process, wrap the 
center well with asbestos, keeping it in place by wind- 
ing some fine wire around it, or instead of using asbes- 
tos, wrap the steel around with clay, keeping it in 
place by the use of a thin piece of sheet metal wound 




Fig. 49. The angle end milling cutter. 

around it, then heat to harden and the results will be 
as formerly explained. 

Hardening Hollow Tools. 

When hardening milling cutters as a, Figure 48. 
spring threading dies or any similar tool, always 
quench them from a vertical or upright position, which 
will allow the steam and water to come up through the 
tool and cause the steel to be hardened more evenly. 
Should the tool be quenched from a horizontal position 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 



105 



it will be impossible for the steam to escape, and which 
will keep the water from coming in contact with the 
hot steel. Thus when the water is held back b}' the 
steam there is a tendency for soft spots in the tool. 

As a rule steel workers never pay any attention to 
the steam when hardening, which is a great mistake, as 
many tools are partially if not altogether spoiled (more 
especially if the tools are of a delicate nature) by the 
great amount of steam which rises as soon as the hot 
steel comes in contact with the water. Delicate or fine 
tools of a hollow nature will sometimes warp or even 
crack, caused by steam and improper methods of 
quenching. 

When hardening a spring threading die, it is not 
necessary to harden the whole tool, but just far enough 
back from the thread to allow the temper to be drawn 
with safety, as indicated by dotted line in Figure 50. 




Fig, 50. The spring threading die. 



106 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 

To draw the temper, after being hardened as just men- 
tioned, hold the end or thread part of the tool above 
the fire and draw the temper very slowly and evenly 
(by keeping the tool turned around) to a dark straw 
color. 

The Hardening and Tempering of Hob Taps, Stay 
Bolt Taps and Similar Tools. 

In forging, annealing and hardening of long slender 
tools, such as hob taps, stay bolt taps, etc., too much 
care cannot be exercised, although as a rule these 
tools do not have to be forged, as the steel is generally 
obtained from the manufacturer the right size to al- 
low it to be machined into the tool. However, the steel 
should be well and evenly annealed, should it come di- 
rect from the manufacturer or should it be forged by 
the toolsmith. 

In annealing as well as hardening long slender tools 
they must be carefully handled when the tool is heated 
the whole length of itself or it will warp easily, also 
pack the tool very carefully when annealing so that it 
will have an equal bearing. 

When hardening get the tool to a very even heat, 
enough to harden the whole length of the thread, and 
when quenching dip deep in the center of the harden- 
ing bath from a perfectly upright position, allowing it 
to remain in the bath until perfectly cold. Bear in 
mind that when quenching a long slender tool, any 
variation from a perfectly upright position will have a 
tendency to warp the tool. When hardening do not 
harden the shank, as all that is required to be hardened 
is the cutting teeth or thread. 

To draw the temper, polish bright the grooves in the 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 107 

thread from end to end, have a couple of heavy 
wrought iron pipes or bands. Heat both in the fire to 
almost a white heat, then remove one from the fire and 
put it in a convenient place, place the tap in the heated 
pipe and draw the tap back and forth to insure a very 
even temper from end to end. If one pipe is not suffi- 
cient to draw the temper, replace with the hot pipe 
that is in the fire, then cool oft' the tool. For all kinds 
of taps draw the temper to a dark straw color. Be sure 
when drawing the temper not to use too small a pipe, 
or the extreme fine points of the thread will draw too 
quickly. For all ordinary taps use a pipe about five 
inches long and 3 inches inside diameter, while the 
thickness of the pipe should not be less than i/o an inch 
or it will cool off too quickly. 

Sometimes when hardening a long slender tool only 
a certain part of it is to be hardened. For example, 
supposing we have a long slender tool 18 inches long 
and 1 inch thick. Now 6 inches in the center is to be 
hardened, while 6 inches at each end is to be kept soft. 
In a case of this kind take an iron pipe 7 inches long 
and 2 inches inside diameter, build the pipe into the 
fire a little above the surface of the forge, and heat the 
pipe evenly all around and from end to end. Now place 
the tool through the pipe, having the part which is to 
be hardened directly in the heated pipe, while the ends 
which are to be left unhardened will project from each 
end of the pipe, which will prevent them from becom- 
ing hot enough to harden. To keep the tool from warp- 
ing or bending (while being heated) place something 
under each end close to the pipe to form a bearing and 
also to keep the tool in the center of the pipe. If the 
tool is to be hardened to a very exact length wrap with 



108 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 

asbestos at the ends of the part which is to be hard- 
ened, as the asbestos will prevent the steel from be- 
coming hardened while being quenched. To illustrate 
this more clearly, a a, Figure 51, represents the as- 
bestos, b the part of the tool which is to be hardened 
and c c the unhardened ends. 



— .' ' > ' 



c a b a c 

Fig. 51. Illustrating how certain parts of tools are hardened. 

Heating Fiirnaces. 

In large shops and factories where tools are made in 
great quantities, furnaces are used to heat steel, but 
principally- for hardening purposes, and in a great 
many respects a furnace is superior to an open fire, as 
steel can be heated in a furnace very evenly and with 
less danger of it becoming overheated than if heated in 
an open fire. Tools of a long slender shape, such as 
stay bolt taps, and tools of a very wide and flat surface 
such as milling cutters, are best heated in a furnace. 
Different kinds of fuel are used for heating furnaces. 
The principal ones used are gas and oil. Gas, however, 
is preferred, as the furnace can be very readily regu- 
lated in order to heat the steel to any degree of tem- 
perature. There are many different makes of furnaces 
and different methods of operating them. 

Heated Lead for Hardening Purposes. 

The lead bath is extensively used for heating steel 
when hardening, and has many advantages that a fur- 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 109 

nace does not possess, as in the lead bath certain parts 
of tools may be heated in order to harden with ease, 
and the temper drawn in many ways which could not 
be accomplished with a furnace. 

When heating steel in lead, be sure to use a chem- 
ically pure lead, containing as little sulphur as possi- 
ble. Sometimes when heating in lead there is danger 
of it sticking to the tool when hardening, but to over- 
come this difficulty make use of the following com- 
pound : Take a pound of powdered cyanide and dis- 
solve it in a gallon of boiling water, afterwards allow- 
ing it to cool. Now dip the articles to be hardened in 
the liquid, remove them and allow to dry before plac- 
ing them in the lead. The liquid when allowed to dry 
on the tools will form a moisture on the tools when in 
the heated lead and prevent the lead from sticking. If 
lead is allowed to stick to the tool while hardening it 
will cause soft spots where the lead remains. When 
heating tools with line projections have a fine brush 
and clean off the tool should any lead happen to stick 
to it. 

To obtain the best results when heating in lead, keep 
the lead stirred up, as it will always naturally be the 
hottest at the bottom. 

A lead bath is preferred to an ordinary heating fur- 
nace, as steel heated in lead will not raise a scale ; also 
if the lead is heated to the proper degree it will be im- 
possible to overheat the steel, consequently the steel 
will be very evenly heated. Should there be a great 
many small tools to harden at once, place them in a 
heavy wire basket or sieve and lower into the lead ; af- 
ter being heated they may be all quenched together. 



110 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 



Boilermakers' Tools. 



Boilermakers' tools, although not so many in num- 
ber or of so complicated a nature as machinists' tools, 
should be well understood in order to forge, harden 
and temper them successfully. The principal tools used 
by boilermakers are beading tools, punches and dies, 
rivet snaps, flue expanders, drifts, calking tools and 
chisels. 

The Beading Tool. 

This is a tool which the average toolsmith does not 
understand, especially the hardening and tempering. 
Beading tools are principally made from yg-inch octa- 
gon steel of 75 point carbon. After forging, then fil- 
ing or grinding to the proper shape as in Figure 52, 



Fig. 52. Correct shape of beading tool. 




b 



harden as indicated, between the dotted lines, then 
temper to a light blue. A great many tool-dressers 
harden the whole end of the tool from a to b, and the 
results in a great many such cases are that the tool 
breaks off at C Now I wish to say to the average tool- 
smith that the point acts only as a guide for the tool 
and it should be kept soft, as only the hollow in the 
tool at d does the work and only the part that requires 
to be hardened and tempered. 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER Hi 

"When a great many of these tools have to be hard- 
ened and tempered at one thne, a good way to do this 
work is by having a very small fire, just large enough 
to heat the part to be hardened. The fire should not be 
any wider than 1V> inches across the surface, and the 
way to build a fire for this purpose is, after the fire is 
nicely started build up with wet coal, with the excep- 
tion of a very small place exactly in the center, which 
should be kept well filled up with fine crushed coke or 
charred coal, keep the blast blowing gently as the fire 
is being built up. By this method a fire may be made 
very small. 

When only a few beading tools are to be hardened at 
one time and it is necessary to heat them in the ordi- 
nary fire, keep the point of the tool from b to c well 
cooled off in water. Do not allow it to become a white 
heat before cooling it off. Cool it often, not allowing it 
to become hotter than a low dull red. In this manner 
the point will be kept soft, while the part between a 
and c is heated to a cherry red so as to harden. When 
quenching dip in the hardening bath down as far as a. 
To draw the temper let it run down very slowly, or 
what is better, draw the temper over the fire. To ob- 
tain the best results from tempering the whole space 
between the dotted lines should show a light blue. 

Punches and Dies. 

When hardening punches and dies (for perforating 
boiler plate or iron) and when a great many of these 
tools are to be hardened at one time, there is nothing 
better to heat them in than heated lead, but as most of 
shops are without this convenience likewise a heating 
furnace, we must resort to the open fire. However, 



il2 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 

speed will be acquired and time saved when hardening 
and tempering in large numbers if the following meth- 
od is put into practice: Have the fire large and flat 
and well heated across the surface. Now place a plate 
of iron or boiler plate which should be about 9 inches 
in width, directly on top of the fire, bank the coal up 
around the edges of the plate to about 3 inches high 
and in the form of a circle, leaving the circle or open 
space on the plate about 5 or 6 inches across. Now 
place as many punches or dies on the hot plate inside 
the circle with the cutting edge up as is convenient. 
Then place another plate over them, allowing it to rest 
on the bank of coal which will form a furnace. Turn 
on the blast slowly and as the punches or dies become 
hot enough to harden, quench them and replace with 
others until all are hardened. 

To draw the temper, polish bright and place them on 
a hot place with the cutting edge upwards and allow 
to remain until the necessary color appears on the cut- 
ting edge. Then cool off. For a punch allow the tem- 
per to draw to a light blue. For a die a dark straw 
will be good. When heating small punches and dies 
for hardening as Figure 53, heat the whole tool and 
quench from a vertical position. 

Flue Expanders. 

When hardening long flue expanders pins, as Figure 
54, follow the instructions as given in hardening hob 
taps, stay bolt taps, etc., but harden the whole length 
of the tool from a to b, while the temper must be 
drawn to a dark blue if the right kind of steel is used, 
which should be about 75 points carbon, likewise all 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 



113 



small parts of flue expanders should be tempered to a 
dark blue. 

All small parts of flue expanders may be heated to 
harden, by placing them on a hot plate of iron. The 
plate of iron being placed directly on the surface of 
the fire and heated to a light yellow, a slight hollow in 



J \ 





Fig. 53. Punch and die for perforating boiler plate, iron, etc. 

the iron plate will be best, which will keep the small 
parts together, and also keep them from rolling off the 
plate, but bear in mind to occasionally turn the tools 
over in order that they will be heated evenly. To draw 
the temper can be done somewhat after the same 



Fig. 54. The expander pin. 



method as heating to harden, but do not have the plate 
of iron nearly so hot, as a low dull red heat in the plate 
will be sufficient to draw the temper. However, keep 
the tools well turned over in order that they will be 
evenly tempered. 



114 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 

Drifts, Rivet Snaps, Calking Tools and Chisels. 

When making a boilermaker's drift it must not be 
hardened or tempered or it will break easily. It should 
be forged to a long gradual taper very round and 
smooth. For a half inch drift take a piece of % round 
or octagon steel, draw it down to 14 of an inch at the 
small end and tapering back to % at the large end, 
while the length is 514 inches. 




Fig. 55. The boilermaker's drift. 

Rivet snaps, which are used for rounding the heads 
of rivets when riveting, are made from Ys octagon 
steel. The end as marked a. Figure 56, is made by up- 
setting the steel, while the hollow in the end illustrated 
by dotted lines is generally made by a machinist by 
turning it to shape in the lathe. Harden and temper 
it after the fashion of a cold chisel, draw the temper 
evenly to a light blue by gradually and slowly turning 
the tool around above the fire. 

Calking tools are made somewhat like a cold chisel, 
with the exception that the bevel of a calking tool is on 
one side only, the other side being perfectly straight 
with the body of the tool. 

Boilermakers' chisels will be found mentioned in an- 
other part of this book. 

Hardening Shear Blades. 

When hardening blades to shear boiler plate or iron, 
heat the cutting edge only (say for 1 inch back) by 
drawing back and forth through the fire, making sure 
to get a very even heat from end to end, then quench 
in the hardening bath from a vertical position and cool 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 



115 



off entirely. When tempering, polish bright and draw 
the temper to a purple by moving back and forth over 
the fire or on a hot plate of iron, being careful to get a 
very even temper, then cool off. Sometimes, although 
seldom a shear blade is made with two cutting edges 
instead of one, so in a case of this kind, heat the whole 
tool evenly from end to end when hardening, after- 
wards tempering as already mentioned. 




-£5 
H 









tD 




CHAPTER VI. 

Woodworkers' and carpenters' tools. 

One of the greatest secrets of success connected with 
woodworkers' tools, is to be able to make them so that 
they will hold a keen cutting edge. Woodworkers' 
tools are made now almost entirely of steel, with a few 
exceptions, such as a carpenter's chisel, which is made 
from iron and laid with steel. But when laying a car- 
penter's chisel or any similar tool don't select any 
piece of scrap steel that might chance to be handy, 
such as an old file because it is of a flat shape, but get 
the best steel of about 75 points carbon. If there is 
no flat piece of good steel in the shop near the shape of 
the chisel, forge a piece of octagon down flat to near 
the shape the chisel is to be, as it is always better to 
do a little hard work; spend a little extra time and 
produce a good tool, in order to get a good reputation. 

Laying- a Carpenter's Chisel. 

When making the weld upset the iron and steel in 
order to have plenty of stock, and when forging the 
scarf for a separate weld have it a little rounding as a. 
Figure 58, but do not leave any hollows in the scarf, 
as b, Figure 58, for dirt and slag to get into. Before 
taking the welding heat prepare the fire, by having the 
coal well charred and the gas and sulphur taken out. 
Now heat the iron to a raw heat and take a good borax 

116 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 



117 



heat on the steel, after drawing- from the fire (before 
placing together to make the weld), strike the ends on 
the anvil to knock off all foreign substance. When 
hammering to make the weld strike the first two or 
three blows lightly, then with heavy blows, making it 
a point to finish the weld by striking on the flat side 
when at a low heat. Also bear in mind that when ham- 
mering to make the weld strike the first few blows di- 



The correct method. 

rectly in the center, which will weld the center first 
and force all slag and foreign matter out. Otherwise 
if the ends are welded first the slag will be forced into 
the center and cannot get out, which would keep the 
parts from uniting or welding. 
After welding to finish the chisel follow the direc- 



^ 



The wrong method. 



Fig. 58. Illustrating methods of scarfing steel for 
separate welding. 

tions as mentioned in making a cold chisel, after hard- 
ening draw the temper to a dark blue. These direc- 
tions will apply to all wood chisels, plane bits, etc. 
When making or repairing any tool with a beveled 



118 



THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 



cutting edge, such as a framing chisel, Figure 59, forge 
the bevel to shape as indicated by a, which will save a 
great amount of filing or grinding, and the tool will be 
just as good if it is hammered when at a low heat on 
the flat and beveled surfaces only. Harden and temper 
all ordinary woodworkers' chisels, at least II/2 inches 
back from the cutting edge. 




Fig. 59. The framing chisel. 

The Screw Driver. 

A good screw driver is a tool which is prized by al- 
most every mechanic who uses one, but more especially 
by woodworkers, and there are very few blacksmiths 
or tool dressers capable of making one to give perfect 
satisfaction, as the screw driver will generally break 
or twist when coming in contact with hard screw driv- 
ing. 

When making one select good steel of 75 points car- 
bon. After it is forged to the correct shape for an or- 
dinary screw driver as Figure 60, strike it a few good 



Fig. 60. Correct shape of ordinary screw driver 
without handle. 

blows on each flat side of the screw driving edge while 
at a low heat. Then harden and allow the temper to 
draw to a grey, cool off and you will have a screw 
driver that will give unlimited satisfaction. 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 119 



How to Make a Draw Knife. 

A draw knife is a very handy tool for woodworkers 
and is also used a great deal in general blacksmith 
shops. Although draw knives are made almost exclu- 
sively in large tool factories, they are as a rule inferior 
to one made properly by hand and from good steel. 
Draw knives vary in shape and size according to the 
work they are to do, but also a great deal depends on 
the fancy of the woodworker who is to use it. 

To make a draw knife for ordinary use and which 
will answer mostly all purposes take a piece of steel of 
75 points carbon, 9 inches long, % thick and Ys wide. 
To forge, first of all heat and bend the steel edgewise 
in a circular shape as in Figure 61, then draw down 
the cutting edge from the inside of the bend to within 
an inch of each end, indicated by a a, which will 
bring the knife back straight again. Now fuller in r.s 
illustrated by dotted lines ai, a, then draw down the 
ends to form the shanks as b, b. Now draw the bevel 
on the back of the knife which will crook the knife 
edgewise again, but it does not signify, as the knife 
will come straight again before it is finished. Now weld 
on pieces to the shanks to form the handles, but in- 
stead of welding on straight, then bending, take a 
piece of small round iron 1/4 thick, upset the end of the 
iron and weld as illustrated at c, c. After welding, 
bend the handles up a little at right angles in order to 
allow the draw knife to be finished (as it must be done 
in the open fire). To finish the knife, heat the whole 
length of the cutting edge of the knife to a low dull 
red, then hammer the whole flat surface of the cutting 
edge from end to end, then turn over the knife and 



120 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 

hammer the other side the same way. Now take an- 
other very low heat as before, but instead of hammer- 
ing directly on the cutting edge, hammer in the center 
of the blade and on both sides the same. After ham- 
mering the knife has come straight again, but if it is 
not exactly straight and instead there is a little full- 
ness in the cutting edge it will be better than if per- 
fectly straight. "When making an ordinary draw knife 
have the under side very flat. 

To harden the draw knife, have the fire wide or in a 
long shape, with the coal well charred and loose. Place 
the knife in the fire with the cutting edge downwards, 
turn the blast on very slow and move the knife back 
and forth through the fire to insure a very even heat 
the full length of the cutting edge. Then quench by 
plunging into the hardening bath with the cutting edge 
downwards, and cool off entirely. If the knife was well 
forged and hammered evenly on both sides the knife 
will come out of the hardening bath perfectly straight, 
but otherwise there will be a crook in it flatwise. How- 
ever, supposing there is a crook in it, polish one side 
bright and draw the temper to a light blue by hold- 
ing the knife flatwise over the fire and moving back 
and forth in order to get a very even temper, "but be- 
fore cooling off" place the draw knife on the anvil and 
take the crook out by striking it with the hammer. The 
reason the crook is taken out so easy is because only 
two-thirds of the knife was hardened, the back of the 
knife remaining unhardened, which along with the 
heat being in the knife, allows the hardened and tem- 
pered part to bend without springing back, now cool 
off and the knife is ready to grind. 

After the tempering is done, to bend the handles to 
shape, heat to a dull red, being careful not to draw the 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 



121 



temper in the main body of the knife. This will be 
overcome if the body of the knife is placed in water 
or by keeping it cool with a wet rag or sponge. 

Piece of steel bent, to make draw knife. 




c c 

Illustrating, cutting edge drawn, back beveled and 
shanks forged. 




n 



d 6"=^ 

Draw knife completed with handles welded on. 
Fig. 61. Showing how to make a draw knife. 



To hold the handles on a draw knife, generally the 
shanks are riveted at d, d, but what is better, cut a 
thread on the ends of the shanks and fasten the han- 
dles on by the use of a small nut and washer. 



CHAPTER VII. 

Stonecutters' tools for granite and marble. 

The making and sharpening of stonecutters' tools is 
a very important branch of the toolsmith's art, and 
first class tool dressers of stonecutters' tools are scarce. 
Although the greatest obstacle to be overcome in con- 
nection with stonecutters' tools, after having a thor- 
ough knowledge as regards the nature of steel, is to 
know the shape and what temper to give. But other- 
wise the steel is worked practically the same as in 
making a cold chisel, or any other flat tool which is 
to have a cutting edge. 

There are many branches to the stonecutter's trade, 
which varies according to the class of stone or rock the 
stonecutter is to cut or work on, as some classes of 
stone are much harder than others, consequently there 
is a great difference in the ways of cutting different 
classes of stone, and also as much difference in the 
shape and temper of the tools. The most common 
classes of stone which are cut and used for building 
purposes are granite, marble, limestone and sandstone. 

Granite Cutters' Tools. 

The tools principally used to cut granite are points, 
chisels, bush hammers, mash hammers, granite ham- 
mers, bull sets and bull chisels. 

122 




rOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 



123 



In Fig. 62 is illustrated the correct shape of a point 
and chisel, which are drawn down very thin at the 
extreme cutting edge but with a very short taper. 
When dressing chisels, keep a very coarse file on hand 
to straighten the cutting edge after hammering. Points 
and chisels are made as a rule from % octagon steel, 
but points will be better if made from % square, as a 
point made from square steel will be held much easier 
to the stone, and will not twist round in the hand so 
easy as if made from octagon steel. 





Fig. 62. Correct shape of granite point and chisel. 



When hardening points and chisels, it is not neces- 
sary to heat them hot enough to harden any farther 
back than % inch, but be careful when heating so as 
not to get the extreme thin cutting edge too hot. 
When quenching to harden dip deep into the hardening 
bath to at least one inch, so that the temper will draw 
very slowly to a dark straw, which is good for all 
ordinary granite tools. But if the granite is excep- 
tionally hard, draw no temper on the chisels. 



124 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 

The Granite Drill. 

Fig. 63 illustrates front and side views of a granite 
hand drill, which are used almost entirely in quarry- 
ing granite, and is made from % octagon steel. The 
shank of the drill is drawn down to % inch round 
and 414 inches long. The bit is forged to a square 
or diamond flat point, being left 1-16 thick on the 
cutting edge and % wide, which gives the drill a good 
clearance and enables it to cut much better and faster, 
and will not get fast in the hole. Harden and temper 
as a point or chisel already mentioned. A drill forged, 



Fig. 63. The granite hand drill, illustrating flat and side 
views of the bit. 

hammered, hardened and tempered properly, will drill 
two holes Sy2 inches deep. I have had them put in as 
many as four holes 3% inches deep, but a drill im- 
properly hardened or overheated will not put in one 
hole, besides tiring the driller much quicker. 

Bull Sets and Bull Chisels. 

Bull sets and chisels are dressed and hardened as a 
stone hammer, with the exception that only one end 
is dressed, the other end being a chisel head which is 
left unhardened for the sledge to strike upon. A bull 
set is made the same shape as the face end of a stone 
hammer. The bull chisel resembles the flat or tapered 



I 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 



125 



end. Stone hammers will be found fully explained 
and illustrated in another chapter of this book. 

The Granite Bush Hammer. 

The cutting part of a granite bush hammer is com- 
prised of thin fiat blades, which are held in place by 




Front view. 



rl — 1 


1 


u 




, □ 



JJ 



□ 



A 



Side view. 




The blade. 
Fig. 64. The granite bush hammer. 



126 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 

two bolts going through the blades and also through 
the hammer. The blades are taken out to sharpen, as 
shown at a, Tig. 64, the cutting edge of the blade, 
Avhich consists of a very short level from each side, is 
forged or hammered to sharpen, while the corners are 
left somewhat rounding, which keeps them from break- 
ing off, as shown in figure at b. When sharpening be 
careful to keep the blades perfectly straight and have 
the cutting edge beveled equally from both sides, also 
bear in mind that the blades should all be exactly the 
same length after being sharpened and replaced in 
the hammer, as illustrated by dotted line at c, other- 
wise should the blades be uneven the hammer will not 
do good work, while the blades will have a tendency 
to break at the cutting edge. 

In order to make the corners rounding when sharp- 
ening, strike a blow on the corners edgewise before 
hammering on the beveled surface. Then the steel will 
be refined and the cutting edge sharpened by striking 
every blow on the beveled surface. After hammering, 
file the edges straight with a coarse file. 

As the cutting edge of the blade is very thin and 
wide, be very careful when heating to harden by hav- 
ing a very even heat. Heat hot enough to harden 
about % of an inch back from the cutting edge, but 
when quenching dip the blade to at least 1 inch deep, 
then polish one side bright and draw the temper over 
the fire, moving the blade sideways back and forth 
to insure a very even temper, draw to a light straw, 
then cool off. 

Some bush hammers differ slightly from others, ow- 
ing to the number of blades they contain. The one 
illustrated in Fig. 64 is considered a coarse cutting 
hammer. 



I 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 



127 



The Granite Hammer. 

A granite hammer resembles an ordinary stone ham- 
mer, with the exception that both ends of a granite 
hammer is drawn down very tapering to an extreme 
sharp cutting edge, as Fig. 65. After hardening, tem- 
per to a light straw. 




Fig. 65. The granite hammer. 



Granite Cutters' Mash Hammer, 

When making a granite cutter's mash hammer, use 
good steel of 75 point carbon, and 1% inches square. 
Wlien forging, do not put in a large oval eye as other 
hammers, but instead punch a small round eye not 
exceeding % of an inch in diameter, which is about 
the right size. The ends of a mash hammer are beveled 
down from the eye on the top and sides, the bottom 
side is left perfectly flat. The face at each end is 
also on a bevel, which should be dressed a little full in 
the center and the corners left very rounding. Harden 
both ends as mentioned in making hammers in another 
chapter of this book, but after proper hardening it 
is not necessary to draw any temper as there are no 
sharp corners to break off. Fig. 66 illustrates the cor- 
rect shape of a mash hammer. 



128 



THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 



The Granite Tool Sharpener's Hammer and Anvil 
Stake. 

When sharpening granite tools, the toolsmith should 
use a bevel face hammer and anvil stake, as Figures 




Fig. 66. Granite cutters' mash hammer. 




Fig. 67. The granite tool sharpeners' hammer. 

67 and 68. These tools are a great advantage over 
an ordinary flat face hammer and the plain anvil, and 
after a little practice in use the work will be performed 
much easier, quicker and neater. 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 



129 



The stake sits in the square hole of the anvil and 
should be kept perfectly firm, by driving a flat key 
through the shank illustrated at b, the shank being 
made long enough to project through the anvil l^/^ 
inches. Harden the face surface of the stake all over 
but not very deep. Be careful when heating to harden 




Fig. 68. The anvil stake. 



so as to get a very even heat in order to harden the 
center of the face, and do not heat too quick or the 
corners will become overheated. The beveled front 
side of the stake at a will be found much better than 
if made perfectly straight for cutting off the ends of 
broken tools and uneven edges. 

To make a granite tool sharpener's hammer, use 



130 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 

steeA 1% inches square. To harden and temper follow 
the directions given in "Hardening and tempering a 
hammer" in another chapter. 

Marble Cutters' Tools. 

Tools for cutting marble are in a great many ways 
the same as those used to cut granite, with the excep- 
tion that the temper is left a little harder, say, a very 



(Q 



Fig. 69. Marble lettering tool. 

light straw. Lettering tools are drawn out very thin, 
as Fig. 69, but owing to the thinness be very careful 
when heating, and make sure when dressing to always 
strike the last few blows on the flat side only, when at 



(0 




Fig. 70. Marble tooth chisel. 

a very low heat. Tooth or ordinary plain ehisals are 
not drawn out so thin as lettering tools. When making 
or dressiiig tooth chisels, the teeth are filed in after 
the hammering is done. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

Stone cutters' tools continued, for limestone and sandstone- 
Stone lathe and planer tools. 

Limestone Cutters' Tools. 

As limestone is of a soft nature, the tools used to 
cut it are of a very different shape and temper to 
those used for hard stone such as granite or marble. 
In cutting soft stone of any description wooden mal- 
lets are used, consequently the heads of the tools are 
made broad and a little rounding, so as not to cut or 
bruise the mallet, as illustrated in Fig. 71. This class 
of tools is known as "mallet headed tools." 

The tools used principally for cutting limestone are 
plain and tooth chisels, points, pitching tools, hand and 
ball drills, tooth axes and bush hammers. When mak- 
ing any of these tools use steel of 75 points carbon. 

Plain and Tooth Chisels and Points. 

Chisels and points are made chiefly from % octagon 
steel. When making chisels, if the chisel is to be nar- 
row forge the head first, but should the chisel neces- 
sarily have to be made wide, the chisel end should be 
forged first, as when forging wide chisels the steel will 
have to be upset (according to the width of the chisel) 
before drawing down to a thin cutting edge. The 
teeth are put in tooth chisels with a punch machine, 
after the hammering is done on the flat surface, and 
then filed to an extreme sharp point. 

131 



132 



THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 



When hardening chisels be careful to get a very 
even heat all along the cutting edge and dip in the 
hardening bath not less than one inch; polish bright 
and draw the temper to a very pale blue, which is the 
right temper for all limestone tools. 






Fig. 71. Plain and tooth chisels for limestone. 



Points are drawn down to almost a square point. 
When hardening dip deep into the bath, and draw the 
temper so that it may be seBn at least % of an inch 
back from the cutM'ng edge, otherwise should the tern- 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 133 

per run down very fast so that only the extreme point 
becomes tempered, the point will be easily bent and 
broken. 



G 




Fig. 72. The limestone point. 

Pitching Tool. 

A pitching tool is made from one inch octagon steel, 
but to form the cutting edge the steel must be upset a 
great deal. The cutting edge of a pitching tool for all 
soft stone, should be slightly beveled as indicated by 
a, Fig. 73, The cutting edge of a granite pitching tool 
will be best if left perfectly straight. 





Fig. 73. The pitching tool. 

Hand and Ball Drills. 

Hand drills for limestone are made on the same prin- 
ciple as hand drills for granite (see Fig. 63) with the 
exception that the bit on a drill for limestone is drawn 
out much thinner and to a sharp cutting edge, the* 
cutting edge being made slightly rounding. 

Ball drills are made by taking a bar of iron about 
5 feet long and ly^ inches in diameter, then welding a 
piece of % octagon cast steel at each end, afterwards 



134 



THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 



drawing out as a hand drill, thus having a drill at 
each end. But bear in mind that the drill on one end 
should be %, the other %. A ball drill is used for 
drilling by raising it up, then allowing it to drop 
down from a vertical position, the larger drill on one 
end being to start the hole, and the smaller one at the 
opposite end being used to finish. Thus the large drill 
gives clearance to the smaller drill, which prevents it 
from sticking in the hole. After hardening, draw the 
temper to a pale blue. 

The Tooth Axe. 

The tooth axe is a tool used a great deal by lime- 
stone cutters, and which has the cutting teeth at each 
end as illustrated in Fig. 74. To make a tooth axe 





ii^. 74. Side and end views of tooth axe. 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 135 

take a piece of steel 2% by ly^ and 5^2 inches long. 
After the hole is punched, when drawing down the 
ends allow the steel to gradually widen out towards 
the cutting edge. Draw down both ends to a flat and 
sharp cutting edge before undertaking to cut in the 
teeth. 

Before cutting in the teeth, have a block of wood or 
some other convenience to rest one end of the tooth 
axe on while cutting the teeth in the opposite end 
and so keep the cutting edges of the tooth axe from 
becoming bent or bruised up. As some tooth axes have 
more teeth in one end than the other, measure off and 
nick in a little with a sharp cold chisel where the teeth 
have to be cut in. Now take a deep red heat and cut 
in with a thin splitting chisel as deep as is necessary 
at the nicks as measured off, afterwards cutting the 
pieces out at right and left angles and the shape of 
the teeth will be formed. But bear in mind when 
cutting the teeth make sure that the outside teeth, as 
a a, Fig. 74, are a little the largest or heaviest, which 
will add strength and keep them from breaking off 
(owing to the extra hard usage) when in use. 

Finish at a low heat by placing a flatter on the flat 
surface and let the helper strike it a few good blows, 
which will straighten the teeth and add strength and 
tenacity to the steel, allow the tooth axe to cool off, 
then file off all roughness between the teeth by using a 
three-cornered file, also file the teeth to an extreme 
sharp point, making sure that all the teeth are in a 
straight line and exactly the same length. 

When hardening, heat all the teeth evenly, being 
careful not to overheat the corner or outside teeth, 
dip to quench in the bath to about I14 inches deep, and 
draw the temper over the fire, moving back and forth 



136 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 

in a sideward motion to insure a very even pale blue 
temper. 

The Limestone Bush Hammer. 

To make a bush hammer that is to give good satis- 
faction, requires great skill and care in forging, hard- 
ening and tempering, but if these instructions are fol- 
lowed closely good results will follow. To make one, 
use steel 2 inches square and 7 inches long; after 
punching the hole, which should be small and almost 




Fig. 75. The limestone bush hammer. 

round (say % in. diameter), now before cutting in the 
teeth have the end of the hammer perfectly square and 
flat, and to form the outside of the teeth the hammer 
should be beveled equally on all four sides as shown 
in Fig. 76. But remember that after the end of the 
hammer is forged, and the teeth are to be cut in, never 
heat above a bright cherry red, otherwise, if a very 
high heat is used when cutting in the teeth, the teeth 
will not hold a good cutting edge, as there is no way 
to refine the steel. 

Bush hammers differ somewhat, by having different 
numbers of teeth, which range from 16 teeth or 4 cuts 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 



137 



to 144 teeth or 12 cuts. The one iUustrated represents 
a 4-cut hammer. To put in the teeth first measure off 
into squares according to the number of teeth re- 
quired, and nick in with a sharp edged cold chisel; 
now heat the hammer to a cherry red and proceed to 
cut in the teeth by cutting in at the nicks with a 
thick edge chisel, which will form the point of the 
teeth. Heat again; this time take a very thin edged 
splitting chisel and cut in to the depth required, which 
will vary according to the size of the teeth, but for a 
4-cut hammer, cut in to % of an inch deep. The first 
end of the hammer may have the teeth cut in by letting 




Fig. 76. Illustrating how bush hammer is forged before 
cutting in the teeth. 



the opposite end rest on the anvil, but to cut the teeth 
in the other end the hammer will have to be placed 
on a block of wood or some other convenience, which 
will not interfere with the teeth. 

After the teeth have been cut in they will have to be 
filed to a sharp square point by using a flat feather- 
edge file, thus, ^ . A file of this description will go 
much deeper into the cuts than an ordinary three- 
cornered file. When filing be careful to keep all the 



138 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 

teeth the same length. In large up-to-date tool shops 
the teeth are put in by the use of a planer, but in small 
or ordinary shops the teeth must be put in by the use 
of a chisel and file. 

When hardening, heat to a very even heat just 
enough to harden, being careful that the corners do 
not become overheated by heating too fast, and also 
watch the extreme points of the teeth for fear they 
become overheated. Although only the teeth are 
necessary to be hardened, it is always best to 
have plenty of heat back of the teeth in the 
main body of the hammer (which should not be hot 
enough to harden, and so should not exceed a low 
blood red), which is necessary to drive down the tem- 
per, as the temper on the inside teeth cannot be drawn 
over the fire unless extreme great care is exercised. 
After hardening by dipping vertically in the bath to 
the depth of almost one inch, moving up and down a 
little at the same time in order to soften gradually, 
then polish up bright as well as possible and allow 
the temper to run down in the teeth to a very light 
blue. 

"When tempering bush hammers, as a rule, the teeth 
in the centre are apt to draw the temper first, while 
the corner teeth are yet hard. To overcome this dif- 
ficulty, take a small piece of wet rag or sponge fast- 
ened to a piece of wire, commonly known as a swab, 
and as soon as the temper in the centre teeth draws to 
a light blue, place the wet swab directly on the tem- 
pered part. This will hold the temper in check in 
the centre teeth until the outside teeth draw to the 
proper temper. 

Harden and temper both ends of the hammer the 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 



139 



same, but when hardening and tempering the last end 
be careful not to draw the temper in the opposite end 
(which is already hardened and tempered), which can 
be overcome by dipping in water occasionally. 



Sandstone Cutters' Tools. 

Sandstone, although of a soft nature, differs some- 
what from limestone, it being of a very sandy composi- 
tion, while limestone is in the nature of very hard clay. 
Tools properly made for limestone will remain sharp a 
long time, but tools for sandstone wear away very 
fast. The tools used to cut sandstone are practically 
the same as those for cutting limestone, the points and 
plain chisels being the same, but tooth chisels differ 
somewhat as the teeth are left flat, as shown in Fig. 
77, while tooth chisels for limestone are filed to a 




Fig. 77. Showing sandstone tooth chisel and splitting tool. 

sharp point. The teeth in sandstone tooth chisels are 
put in with a punch machine after the last hammering 
is done. 

When dressing plain or tooth chisels for sandstone, 
be careful to leave them a little rounding in the cutting 



140 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 

edge, as these tools when cutting sandstone are natur- 
ally inclined to become hollowing in the centre, and 
more especially in wide chisels. When tempering sand- 
stone tools let the temper draw to a light blue, but 
when tempering very wide chisels be careful and do 
not allow the temper to run out at the centre while 
the corners are at a straw color, as all wide tools of 
an irregular shape (especially when not being hard- 
ened very far back from the cutting edge by not being 
dipped very deep in the hardening bath) have a ten- 
dency to draw the temper in the centre first, so have 
a small swab which consists of a small piece of wet 
rag or sponge attached to the end of a piece of wire, 
and when the temper in the centre of the chisel reaches 
a light blue, press the wet swab directly against it, 
which will hold the temper in check until the corners 
are drawn to the proper color. 

Stone Carvers' Tools. 

All stone carvers' tools are made very cnin and fine, 
but as the blows that fall upon them are exceedingly 
light it is not necessary to draw any temper, as they 
will stand and give good results, if properly hammered 
and hardened. 

Polishing Board for Stone Cutters' Tools. 

When tempering stone cutters' tools and a great 
many at one time, have a short piece of board nailed 
or fastened in a convenient place close to the forge, 
and have some fine clean sand to put on the board. 
The board, if beveled a little upwards, will hold the 



1 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 



141 



sand on it much better than if fastened perfectly level. 
After hardening, the tools are brightened while in the 
hand or tongs by simply rubbing on the sand across 
the board. 

How to Forge Mallet Head Tools. 

To forge or make mallet head tools, they should be 
first upset a little, afterwards being fullered in, then 
drawn out. Then swage to shape by using tools as 
shown in Fig. 78. 





Fig. 78. Top and bottom swage for making mallet head tools. 



Punching Teeth in Stone Cutters' Tools. 

There are different kinds of punch machines used in 
performing this work, which are operated by an up- 
right, side or foot lever, and all will do good work as 
a rule if the punch and die are made properly. The 



142 



THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 



correct shape of these tools are shown in Pig. 79, wbich 
illustrates both die and punch made with a bevel. This 
style of punch and die will punch the teeth very easy 
and the punch will not break so easy and will keep 
the chisel straight when punching in the teeth. The 
opening in the die at a should be a little larger on 
the under side, which will act as clearance. The 
cutting edge of the punch should fit the opening very 
closely, it being a little thinner back from the cutting 
edge in order that it will move up and down through 
the opening "in the die" with ease. The beveled cut- 



D 




Fig. 79. Punch and die for teeth punching machines. 

ting edge of the punch allows it to punch the teeth by 
a gradual cut, and which works much easier than if it 
was made with a perfectly straight cutting edge. 

The teeth will punch best when the steel is just a 
little warm. When punching be careful to hold the 
chisel perfectly level on the beveled surface of the die, 
otherwise the chisel will bend. In cases where the 
teeth bend after punching, do not undertake to 
straighten again when cold, as that will take out all 
the toughness and tenacity from the steel (that was 
put in the steel when hammering at a low heat) and 
the chisel or the teeth will break very easy when in 




f 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 



143 



use, but when straightening after being punched heat 
the chisel to a low heat. 

Harden the punch as any ordinary flat tool and draw 
the temper to a dark blue. To harden the die heat 
the whole tool evenly enough to harden, then cool off; 
entirely, afterwards drawing the temper over the fire 
or on a piece of heated flat iron. Draw the temper 
to a dark straw. 

Lathe and Planer Tools for Cutting Soft Stone. 

In large and up-to-date stone yards, a great amount 
of stonecutting is done by machinery, and which brings 
into use "stone lathe and planer tools." There are a 
great many tools of this description used, and almost 
everj^ one is of a different shape, varying according 
to the work that is to be done. Some of these tools 
are made from heavy steel, as finishing tools shown in 
Fig. 80, which are made from 1 by 4-inch flat steel, 




fig. 80. Finishing tool for stone planer. 



144 THE TWENTIETH CENTURi; 

while the cutting edge is about 6 inches wide. To 
make a finishing tool as illustrated, the steel will have 
to be upset, then drawn or flattened out until it is the 
proper size. Heat to a good yellow heat when forging. 
The cutting edge is drawn down on a bevel principally 
from one side, as illustrated by a in figure, leaving 
the other side, b, perfectly flat. After the cutting 
edge is drawn out (as just mentioned), then ham- 
mered at a low heat to refine the steel, the cutting edge 
at c should be bent up a little from the flat side, 
which will enable the tool to be cut much better. 
Roughing tools illustrated in Fig. 81 are made some- 



Fig. 81. Roughing tool for stone planer. 

what after the same method, but from much smaller 
steel ; also the cutting edge of a roughing tool is made 
rounding. Moulding tools are forged as near to the 
correct shape as possible, afterwards being ground. 

To harden, heat the cutting edge about three-fourths 
of an inch back, enough to harden, according to the 
shape, but dip deep in the bath and draw the temper 
to a light straw color. For finishing tools, it is not 
necessary to draw any temper with the exception of 
the extreme corners, as indicated by dotted line of 
figure, which should be drawn to a light straw by 
holding over the fire. 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 145 

Dressing Tools with the Cutting Edge Beveled from 
One Side Only. 

"When dressing tools of this description a great dif- 
ficulty is to be contended with, such as hammering 
or forging equally from both sides. Most blacksmiths 
and tool dressers have a great tendency to hammer 
on the beveled side only, which is a great mistake. 
Take, for example, stone planer tools as illustrated 
in Figs. 80 and 81, if they are dressed by hammering 
entirely on the beveled side, they will be sure to crack 
when hardening the second or third time they are 
dressed, and the tendency to crack will be increased 
if forged entirely at a low heat, so bear in mind to 
have a good yellow heat when commencing to forge 
and finish at a low heat, but forge or hammer equally 
from both sides. 



CHAPTER IX. 
The stonemason's nammer — Miners' tools. 

The Stonemason's Hammer. 

A stone hammer is the mason's favorite tool, and 
which almost every general blacksmith, is called upon 
to dress, but there are very few who understand the 
process thoroughly so as to give good satisfaction, 
and knowing that almost every general blacksmith 
would like to be capable of doing this work success- 
fully, I will give these instructions, and if followed 
closely the trouble with stone hammers will be over. 
Have a large fire, with the coal well charred (as it is 
poor policy trying to heat a stone hammer in a small 
fire) ; now place the face end of the hammer in the 
fire and heat slowly to an even yellow heat clear 
through the hammer for 1% inches back. Be careful 
not to heat too fast so that the corners will be at a 
white heat while the centre is almost black. Uneven 
heating of this description will cause strains in the 
steel and have a tendency to crack when hardening. 

When dressing a stone hammer always finish at a 
low dull red heat. After the face end is dressed go 
over the flat end in the same way, with the exception 
that the last blows should fall on the flat sides only 
when at a very low heat. To form the cutting edge 
on the flat end of a stone hammer it can be forged to 
shape with the hand hammer or cut to shape with a 
thin splitting chisel. 

146 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 



147 



Now that both ends are dressed, return the face end 
to the fire; heat carefully and slowly until the whole 
face is a cherry red. Never allow the corners to get 
above a cherry red when heating to harden and should 
the corners reach the necessary heat to harden before 
the centre of the face, stop blowing the fire, which 
will check the heat in the corners and allow the centre 
to come up to the required heat. To harden, plunge 
the whole hammer deep into the hardening bath and 
cool off entirely, at the same time keeping the water 
agitated so that it will keep cool and act on the hot 
steel much quicker. Heat and harden the other end 
in the same way, but be careful not to draw any tem- 
per in the end already hardened, which can be over- 
come by occasionally dipping the hardened end in 
water while heating the other end, for all ordinary 
stone hammers never draw any temper. 

As almost every blacksmith or tooldresser who has 




Fig, 82. The stone hammer. 



dressed stone hammers has had more or less experi- 
ence by having them crack, bear this in mind, that it 
is not the water which causes them to crack, as a great 
many may suppose, "but instead by the fire," for if 
a stone hammer becomes overheated in the fire, espe- 
cially when heating to harden, there will be cracks in 



148 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 

it, and if they don't show up the first time after 
quenching, they will the next, and this information 
likewise applies to other tools. Sometimes when work- 
ing on soft stone, some masons prefer a stone hammer 
made with a hollow face, as indicated by dotted lines 
in Fig. 82. 

Miners' Tools. 

As there is a great amount of mining going on 
throughout the country, first-class sharpeners of min- 
ers' tools are in great demand, and likewise receive 
high wages. The principal tools used by miners are 
drills, which may be divided into two classes, as, the 
hand drill and the cross or machine drill. 

To make a good fast cutting hand drill, notice the 
shape of the drill in Fig. 83. I have had drills of this 





Fig. 83, Correct shape of miners* hand drill for hard rock. 

description drill a hole 19^/2 inches deep, through hard 
granite at one sharpening, and for a whole day at a 
time I have had them average 14 inches to each sharp- 
ening, but yet how many drill sharpeners are there 
that can make a drill average 6 inches in hard granite 
without resharpening ? The real secret of success in 
order to make a good fast cutting hand drill is this: 
The drill must be properly hardened but not very far 
back from the cutting edge, and have plenty of clear- 
ance on the corners of the bit. The (Jutting etJge is 



I 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER l49 

formed by drawing down to a very short taper, and 
should be gradually rounding towards the extreme 
cutting edge (instead of being perfectly straight). As 
shown in side view of Fig. 83, the cutting edge should 
also be just a little rounding. 

A great many drill sharpeners do not give their 
drills enough clearance on the corners and at the same 
time making the drill very rounding in the bit as Fig. 
84, Others again make the drills too thick at the 





Fig. 84. Incorrect shape of hand drill. 

cutting edge, as shown in side view of the same figure. 
Miners call this shape a bull bit because it will neither 
cut or break on account of its thickness. This shape 
of a drill is made by driving back the steel with the 
hammer when sharpening. Ordinary hand drills for 
hard rock such as granite, requires no temper to be 
drawn after hardening. 

The Cross or Machine Drill. 

The machine drill which does its work by the aid 
of steam, is entirely different from a hand drill, the bit 
or cutting edge being in the shape of a cross, as shown 
in Fig. 85. To make a machine drill, the end is first 
upset according to the size of the drill to be made, 
then split in from four sides with a thin hot chisel, 
afterwards fullering in with square fullers, which will 
leave the end as Fig. 86. The bevel of the cutting edge 
is then cut on with a hot chisel. 



150 



THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 



"When forging or dressing the bit of a machine drill, 
make sure that the centre of the bit is exactly in the 
centre of the drill, so as not to have one part of the 
bit longer than another, and have the bit perfectly 
square and all the cutting edges exactly the same 
length; also have a good clearance on the corners. 
Although machine drills are used chiefly in mines they 





Fig. 85. Illustrating side and end views of a machine 
or cross drill. 



Fig. 86. Showing the shape of a machine drill bit before cutting 
bevel to form cutting edge. 



are also used in stone quarries, but when making a 
machine drill for soft rock such as limestone, the bit 
should be made thinner and should also have a longer 
bevel to form the cutting edge, than a drill which is 
to drill hard rock. 

"When hardening a machine drill, heat the whole 
bit evenly but not exceeding % of an inch back from 
the cutting edge, then plunge into the hardening bath 
and cool off entirely. Drills to cut hard rock require 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 151 

no temper drawn, but a machine drill to drill soft 
rock should be drawn to a dark blue. 

The Breaking of Drills when Drilling and the Cause. 

The main cause for drills breaking is due to over 
and uneven heating and also by having too long a 
heat when hardening, but a great many times the drill 
will break and although the broken fracture shows a 
very solid, fine and close grain in the steel representing 
a piece of glass (a sure sign that the steel was properly 
hardened), there must be some other cause, and in 
eases of this kind I used to blame the drill runner 
for carelessness, when at the same time I was the one 
to blame for not making the drill the correct shape 
by not giving the drill enough clearance on the cx3rners. 

It should be remembered that if a drill has not 
enough clearance and binds in the hole it is very easily 
broken, although it may be properly hardened. An- 
other cause for drills breaking is, when drilling rock 
that has seams or cracks running through it, but this 
is a natural cause and cannot as a rule be remedied, 
although it may be partly overcome when drilling 
with a hand drill, by making the drill perfectly straight 
in the bit. When drilling holes 12 or 15 feet deep, 
the hole is always started with a large drill, but as 
the hole is drilled deeper the drill will have to be 
made smaller and longer. A good rule to go by so 
as to regulate the size of the drill for deep drilling, is 
to make the bit or cutting edge % of an inch smaller 
to every 2 feet in length of the drill. To further ex- 
plain, supposing a hole is to be drilled 16 feet in depth, 
the first drill or starter will be 2i/4 wide in the bit, 
while the last one to finish the hole will be 1^ inches 



152 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 

wide in the bit. Generally a gauge is kept on hand 
for the purpose of regulating the size of the drill, 
which consists of a piece of thin flat iron having the 
different sizes cut in it. 

The Rock-Cutting Reamer. 

Sometimes after drilling, it is found necessary (b^ 
the man who does the blasting) to break the rock a 
certain way, but as satisfactory results cannot be ac- 
complished by the ordinary round drill hole, the hole 
is cut into an oval shape and in a direction which is 
most likely to cause the necessary results. This work 
is known as "reaming the hole." 

The reamer is made as a rule from octagon steel, 
by upsetting according to the size of the drill hole to 
be reamed, and forged to an oval shape. The long 
way of the oval cutting face should be a little round- 
ing, while the ends as illustrated, a a, Fig. 87, should 

a 




Fig. 87. The rock cutting reamer. 

be forged to a sharp point, and the cutting edges, as 
b b, should be perfectly square and sharp. The reamer 
should be well tapered back from all sides of the 
cutting face to give a clearance. 

To harden, heat the cutting face enough to harden 
about % of an inch back, then plunge into the bath 
and cool off "dead cold" and draw no temper. Unless 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 153 

the reamer is to cut soft rock, then draw the temper 
to a dark blue. 

Well Drills. 

There is a great amount of well drilling going on 
throughout the country, consequently the blacksmith 
is called upon to dress the drills occasionally. The 
size and shape of the drill depends upon the size of 
the hole and the hardness of the rock to be drilled. 
A drill for hard rock is made thick and heavy, and 
is hardened without drawing any temper. But a drill 
for soft rock is made thin, and after hardening the 
temper is drawn to a dark blue. When making wide 
and thin well drills be careful in heating to forge, but 
more especially when hardening. 



CHAPTER X. 

Horseshoers' Tools — How to dress a vise — Sharpening plow 
shares. 

Horseshoers' Tools. 

After considering the number of horseshoers there 
are, it is safe to say that not one in a hundred can make 
or dress their own tools as they should be done. I have 
been in a great many horseshoeing shops, where I have 
seen men working by main strength and energy simply 
for the want of good tools. 

The majority of horseshoers buy their tools in a hard- 
ware store, using them until they become dull, then 
they are thrown- away, because the horseshoer does not 
know how to fix them. But as every horseshoer likes to 
have good sharp tools, I will give the following instruc- 
tions on different tools which if put into practice, it 
will be no longer necessary to work with dull tools. 

How to Make and Dress a Pair of Pincers. 

To make a pair of pincers, take a piece of %-i^eh 
square steel which should be 75 points carbon, forge 
and bend to shape as illustrated in Fig. 88, leaving the 
jaw the full width of the steel and tapering towards 
the cutting edge, but be sure and leave the jaw heavy 
and strong as indicated by a in Figure 88. After the 
jaw is bent to shape, strike the flat surface of the cut- 
ting edge a few good blows by placing the jaw on the 
narrow or flat end of the anvil. The handles may be 

154 




TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 



155 




Fig. 88. Illustrating horseshoer' 

pinchers and how jaw is forged 

and bent to shape. 




to^ 



156 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 

drawn out round or half round as suits the man who is 
to use them, but will be much easier on the hand and be 
a pleasure to use if the handles are made %-inch halt 
round. After both parts are forged fit together and 
drill the hole for the bolt or rivet. A steel bolt is pre- 
ferred to a rivet, as then the pincers can be taken apart 
very easy whenever necessary. 

To harden, heat at least 1 inch back from the cutting 
edge and draw the temper to a light blue. To dress 
pincers, hoof cutters or nail nippers, without taking 
out the rivet, heat the whole jaws to a bright cherry 
red, then close in or bend to shape. Now have a very 
low red heat and strike a few blows on the flat surface 
only of each cutting edge, although it is always best to 
refine the steel by hammering equally on both flat sides, 
,pincers can be hammered on one side only after being 
bent to shape, which will be done from the outside. To 
harden, have the cutting edges close together, so as to 
heat both at once in the fire about 1 inch back from 
each cutting edge. Then plunge into the hardening 
bath and cool off entirely. Now polish the inside of the 
cutting edges, then draw the temper very slowly and 
evenly over the fire to a light blue. 

Making a Clinch Cutter. 

To make a clinch cutter, take a piece of good ordi- 
nary tool steel 1 inch wide, % inch thick and 5 inches 
long, fuller in as shown in Fig. 89, then draw out the 
part to form the handhold. Now forge the edge for 
the clinch cutter, making it a point to finish by ham- 
mering on the flat sides of the cutting edge while at a 
low heat. Draw out the punch almost square, bearing 
in mind to strike the last two or three blows on the flat 
side when at a low heat. 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 



1C7 



Harden the clinch cutter by heating the cutting edge 
about % of an inch back, then quench in the bath as in- 
dicated by dotted lines in Fig. 90, then polish one side 
and draw the temper over the fire to a light blue. Hard- 
en and temper the punch after the same method as the 
clinch cutter. Bear in mind that when hardening the 



Fkf 



Lfl 



f\ f 



Fig. 89. Illustrating piece of steel fullered in to make a 
clinch cutter. 



a 



V 




Fig. 90. The clinch cutter completed. 



(Clinch cutter or punch, keep the back as indicated by 
'a a. Fig. 90, perfectly soft, otherwise it will make 
marks in the face of the hammer. This way of harden- 
ing and tempering will apply to all horseshoers' tools. 
When drawing out a pritchel, always strike the last 
two or three blows on the flat sides, but not necessarily 
to harden or temper. 



158 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 

How to Make a Horseshoer's Knife. 

To make a horseshoer's knife, follow the instructions 
as given for making butcher knives mentioned in an- 
other chapter, with the exception that the horseshoer's 
knife must be bent to shape after the hammering is 
done while at a low red heat, and the temper drawn to 
a dark blue. 

How to Dress a Vise. 

It is a common occurrence when entering a black- 
smith shop to find the blacksmith doing some work 
with the vise and at the same time blaming it for not 
gripping the work firm enough, on account of the teeth 
being worn smooth in the face and the work turns or 
slips when in the vise. But if the blacksmith knew 
how he could repair the vise in a couple of hours ' time 
and make it grip as firm as when the vise was new. In 
order that the job may be performed successfully and 
with ease, -follow these directions: Take the vise apart 
and place a jaw in the fire. If the jaw is worn very bad- 
ly on the corners heat the jaw to a yellow heat and 
then forge to the proper shape. If the vise is not worn 
badly, just heat enough to draw the temper. After 
both jaws are dressed place the vise together to see if 
the jaws fit, as they should be perfectly level and 
straight. Now have a very sharp cold chisel and cut in 
the teeth at an angle across the face, beginning at one 
corner and going to the other. Then come back cut- 
ting at the opposite angle, as Fig. 91. Be careful not to 
cut the teeth in too deep or too far apart. 

To harden, lay the jaw on the fire with the face or 
teeth side up ; heat slowly to a low red heat. Then turn 
over and heat the whole face to a very even cherry red, 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKEB 



159 



but be careful not to overheat the corners and also 
bear in mind to have the center of the face as hot as is 
necessary to harden. Then plunge into the hardening 
bath and cool off entirely. Polish the face bright, and 
to draw the temper have the surface of the fire per- 
fectly flat without any blaze; lay the jaw of the vise 
on the fire, teeth side up, and allow the temper to draw 
very slowly, without blowing the fire, with the exception 
of just enough to keep the fire from dying out. Allow 




Fig. 91. Showing how teeth should be cut in a vise. 



the temper to draw to a dark blue, then cool off, and 
the vise will hold the work very fast and firm, being 
equal to any new vise. 

If the jaws of the vise are very square the teeth may 
be cut in cold without heating the vise at all, and 
which will answer the purpose very well in a temporary 
way. Make a cold chisel for cutting hard metal (after 
the directions as are already given in another chapter 
of this book) and cut in the teeth after the method as 
illustrated, being careful to keep the cutting edge of 
the chisel well ground. 

Sharpening Plowshares. 

There is a great amount of this work done through- 
out the country, especially in prairie States or Prov- 
inces and which in certain seasons of the year forms a 



160 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 

great part of the country blacksmith's work, but there 
are very few blacksmiths who understand thi^ work as 
it should be understood in order to give the farmer the 
best results. 

The style or shape of the share varies according to 
the land which is to be plowed, as the land may fee 
so-called stony, sandy or clay land. 

The first and foremost point in being able to sharpen 
a share that will give good results is to have a thor- 
ough knowledge of the nature and the working of 
steel and being without this knowledge is the cause of 
shares breaking, bending or having so-called water 
cracks in them. 

When sharpening a share have the hammer face very 
smooth, with the corners a little rounding, so as not to 
leave any deep marks in the steel, and also have the 
anvil face smooth, otherwise the share will give trouble 
by not cleaning when plowing in sticky or clay land, 
unless the marks are all ground out or the share pol- 
ished after it is sharpened. When heating so as to draw 
the cutting edge, always heat the steel to a bright yel- 
low heat, but always be careful not to overheat. When 
forging the cutting edge, hammer evenly and equally 
on both sides, but finish from the under side. By doing 
the last hammering from the under side it will have a 
very smooth surface on the top side of the share if the 
anvil is smooth ; and always bear in mind to finish ham- 
mering when the steel is at a low black red heat, thus 
refining the steel and making it tough. Do not hammer 
the steel after it becomes black as hammering steel be- 
low a certain heat makes it flaky and brittle and easily 
broken. (This information will apply to farmers and 
others who try to sharpen their own shares by hammer- 
ing them when cold.) Shares to be used in stony land 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 161 

should not be drawn out so thin as those which are used 
in sandy or land that is free from stones. 

To harden a plowshare, heat the extreme cutting 
edge to a low cherry red (or just enough to harden) the 
full length of the share by moving back and forth 
through the fire, then plunge into clean cold water 
point first and in a vertical position. A plowshare 
sharpened and hardened after these directions will 
give unlimited satisfaction. But although the instruc- 
tions given in hardening will prove most successful 
when it can be accomplished, there are times when a 
share cannot be hardened the whole length of the cut- 
ting edge in the blacksmith's fire. This will apply to 
very large and long shares, so when hardening very 
long shares do not try to harden the whole cutting 
edge, but harden only the point of the share from a to 
b, as illustrated in Fig. 92, a long share hardened 



® ® 




^ b 

C 

Fig. 92. An ordinary plowshare. 

after these directions will give good results if the 
whole cutting edge has been forged and hammered 
after the instructions formerly mentioned. 

When sharpening plowshares in order that they will 
give good results and cause the plow to run level, 
make the point a little rounding, as marked c. Fig. 92, 
otherwise if made square it would gather up long 



162 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 

grass and cause the plow to run out of the ground. 
Also have the cutting edge in a straight line from 
the wing d to the point a, so that if placed on a level 
floor the cutting edge would come in contact and rest 
evenly on the floor, the entire length of the share. 
Plowshares for breaking plows are made with a very 
sharp point as illustrated by dotted lines in figure. 

How to Make Square Holes in Plowshares. 

A great many blacksmiths when making plowshares 
have more or less trouble to make proper shaped holes, 
in order that the bolthead will fit properly and not 
turn around when the share is being tightened up firm- 
ly to the plow head. To do this work correctly after 
the hole is drilled and countersunk, and the hole is 
to be made for a square cornered plow bolt, 
make a square drift or punch as Fig. 93, having it just 





Fig. 93. Punch for squaring holes in plowshares. 



a trifle larger than the square of the bolt head, also 
have the cutting face perfectly square and flat, it 
should be a little smaller back of the cutting face to 
give clearance. Harden the punch and draw the tem- 
per to a blue. 

To make the hole square, place the share on the 
anvil holding it firm, then punch the hole as already 
drilled, from the opposite side of the countersink. By 
following this method and holding the punch directly 
and evenly over the hole, the corners will be cut out 
leaving the hole very square and neat. 



CHAPTER XI. 

How to make a harnessmaker's knife — Butchers* tools^ 
Railroad tools. 

How to Make a Harnessmaker's Knife. 

To make a harnessmaker's knife will try the skill of 
the expert to its full extent, leaving aside an amateur 
steelworker, but if the amateur will follow the direc- 
tions very closely he will meet with the best of success. 
To make one, use sheet cutlery steel of 75 points car- 
bon and 3-32 of an inch thick, but the size of the steel 
to be used will depend on the size of the knife to be 
made. The size of the knife depends a great deal 
who is going to use it, as some knives are made as 
wdde as 6 inches, while others do not exceed 4 inches, 
and in a great many cases smaller. After getting steel 
the proper width, draw an outline of the knife on the 
steel according to the size of the knife to be made, 
but bear in mind not to cut the full size of the knife 
as the cutting edge is yet to be drawn out, but cut out 
3-16 smaller, as indicated by dotted line a, a, a, Fig. 
94. If the steel is not long or wide enough to cut the 
full length of the shank, it may be cut as 
indicated by dotted line at b and then drawn out to 
shape, and in extreme scarcity of steel, the shank may 
be welded on at c, but this is a difficult job owing to 
the steel being so wide and thin, but it can be done 
with care. 

After being cut to shape from the steel and the 
shank formed, forge the cutting edge of the knife by 

163 



164 



THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 



taking a deep cherry red heat, and commencing to 
hammer at the point marked f, hammering equally 
from both sides until all the cutting edge is drawn out, 




Fig. 94. The harnessmaker's knife. 

although it may be necessary to take two or three 
heats before all the cutting edge is drawn out. 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 165 

Now to refine and pack the steel, get the knife to a 
veiy dim red, then hammer evenly on both flat sides 
of the whole cutting edge; now heat again to a very 
low heat and then hammer, but this time do not ham- 
mer directly on the cutting edge, but instead go back 
from the extreme cutting edge % of an inch, as indi- 
cated by d, d, d, which will take the strain out of the 
steel. Now anneal the knife by heating to an even 
blood red heat all over the knife (except the shank), 
then pack in lime or ashes, allowing it to remain there 
until perfectly cold, which will also help to take the 
strain out of the steel, afterwards filing the edges 
smooth. To harden, heat the knife to a low cherry 
red one inch back from the cutting edge in the blaze 
of the fire, at the same time moving the knife in a cir- 
cular motion in order to heat the whole cutting edge 
very evenly (and be careful to avoid heating the cut- 
ting edge in streaks), then plunge the whole knife in 
the hardening bath from a vertical position, and cool 
off. If the cutting edge was forged and hammered 
very evenly and hardened evenly, the knife will come 
from the hardening bath perfectly straight, but other- 
wise there will be a crook in it, however polish one 
side of the knife as far back as it is hardened, and 
draw the temper very slowly over the fire, moving the 
knife in a circular motion back and forth to insure a 
very even temper, draw the temper to a dark blue 
(which will apply to all leather cutting tools), but 
before cooling off, should there be a crook in the knife, 
take it out by straightening it on the anvil with the 
hammer, then cool off and the knife is finished. Should 
it be impossible to take out all the crook with the ham- 
mer after the temper is drawn, a certain amount can 
be taken out and the knife made perfectly straight 



166 THE TWENTIETH CENTUEY 

wlien grinding, but if the knife crooks a great deal 
when hardening, yet not enough to crack the steel, it 
will have to be heated again, straightened and an- 
nealed. However, if these directions are followed 
closely, there will be no danger of the knife crooking 
of any account, and the knife will hold a very keen 
edge on the hardest of leather. The dotted lines at 
e, e, e, represents an outline of the handle. To en- 
able the shank to stay firm in the handle it should be 
feathered with a very sharp cold chisel, as illustrated. 

How to Make a Butcher's Steel. 

Butcher's steels are principally made by machinery, 
as the knowledge for making a good butcher's steel by 
hand is unknown by most of the blacksmiths or tool- 
makers, although a steel properly forged and hard- 
ened by hand will outwear any that can be purchased 
in a hardware store. To make one, take a piece of 
round tool steel say %-inch diameter, after fullering 
in at a, Fig. 95, to form the shank and also fullering a 




Fig. 95. The butcher's steel. 

little at b, forge the steel tapering and very round. 
To put in the teeth, make the steel firm by putting the 
shank in a vise, now have a coarse sharp file, place it 
square across the steel, press hard and draw length- 
wise of the steel from end to end and equally all 
around, two files will be found more convenient than 
one, on account that the teeth can be put in two sides 
of the steel at once, which is done by holding the ends 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 167 

of the files in the hands with the steel between the 
files. 

Forge the shank long and square and feather it (as 
illustrated in Figure 95), so that it will stay firm in 
the handle. To harden, see instructions for hardening 
tools with fine projections. 

Hardening Tools With Fine Projections. 

To harden tools of this description, I will select a 
butcher's steel, as the teeth are very fine. Should this 
tool be heated to harden in the open fire as other tools, 
the teeth will lose their fine cutting edges and which 
is especially required on a steel in order to sharpen 
knives. To overcome this difficulty use the following 
compound: Take equal parts of wheat flour and salt, 
also a little water, then mix together to the consistency 
of soft mud. Have the steel perfectly dry and clean, 
then roll it in the compound covering the teeth of the 
steel well from end to end, then heat to a good cherry 
red the whole length of the tool (excepting the shank), 
then plunge vertically in the hardening bath, allowing 
it to remain there until perfectly cold, then clean off, 
but draw no temper, as the steel will not be too hard. 
Very fine files may also be hardened after this method 
and all other similar tools. 

The Butcher's Cleaver. 

A butcher's cleaver is made from flat steel ^ inch 
in thickness, but the width of the steel will be accord- 
ing to the size of the cleaver to be made. When forg- 
ing a cleaver, as Fig. 96, weld on an iron shank to the 
shape, as illustrated, so that it will be strong. The 
cutting edge of the cleaver is forged by drawing down 



168 



THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 



the steel to a very short bevel equally from both sides 
while the steel is at a good yellow heat, then finish 
by hammering at a low heat on the beveled edges and 
backwards a short distance on the main body of the 
tool. To harden, heat the whole cutting edge back- 
wards about % of an inch to a cherry red by moving 
back and forth through the fire so as to heat evenly; 
then quench, afterwards drawing the temper to a light 
blue by moving it back and forth over the fire. 




Fig. 96. The butcher's cleaver. 

Butcher knives will be found fully explained and 
illustrated in another chapter of this book. 



How to Dress a Railroad Pinch Bar. 

Wherever railroad ears are to be moved by hand, it 
is often found necessary to take the pinch bar (as this 
is the tool principally used for this work) to the black- 
smith to have it dressed or sharpened, but this work 
is very little understood by the average blacksmith 
and so the tool fails to give good results, it being too 
soft or otherwise the heel will break off. 

To dress, heat the whole end of the pinch bar to a 
good yellow heat but not necessarily very far back, and 
then dress to the shape of Fig. 97. To harden, heat 
the face of the tool from heel to point to about 1 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 169 

inch back to a very even cherry red, being careful not 
to get the heel overheated, then dip in the harden- 
ing bath to IV2 inches back at an angle as indicated by 
dotted line in figure. Now polish the heel and side 
bright and draw the temper, by placing the part be- 
tween a and b directly over the fire, heat slowly and 
draw the point to a blue temper, but keep the heel as 
indicated by c cooled off by occasionally dipping it in 
water to the depth, as illustrated by dotted line (as 
the heel cannot be too hard when properly hardened) 
while drawing the temper at the point, then cool off 



Z^ 




b 

Fig. 97. Correct shape of punch bar. 



and you have dressed a pinch bar that will give un- 
limited satisfaction. 

There are different kinds or shapes of pinch bars, but 
the one as illustrated in Fig. 97 has been found by 
practical experience to be the best, as it is very strong. 
The one illustrated in Fig. 98 is perhaps more com- 
monly made and used, but the fault of this pinch bar 
is, it is not heavy or strong enough at the point, con- 
sequently when moving heavy or loaded cars the point 
is very apt to bend or break. When hardening a pinch 
bar, as Fig. 98, harden the heel only, as the point will 
break if hardened or tempered. If at any time it is 
necessary to put a new heel on a pinch bar, upset the 



170 



THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 



steel to the shape of Fig. 99, then forge to shape. The 
illustration as Fig. 99 will also apply when making new 
pinch bars. 




Fig. 98. The ordinary shape of pinch bar. 

> ^ 



Fig. 99. Showing steel upset to forge heel on punch bar. 

The Spike Maul. 

When building or repairing railroads, the spike maul 
or spike hammer is greatly used, its principal use 
being to drive spikes in the ties. To make one, take a 
piece of 2-inch square steel and after punching the eye 
forge to the shape as illustrated in Fig. 100, as will be 



Fig. 100. The spike maul. 

seen one end is drawn down very small to about % of an 
inch across the face, both ends are dressed as an ordi- 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 171 

nary hammer. To harden, heat the large end of the 
spike maul first to a cherry red about % of an inch 
back from the face, having the center of the face at an 
even heat with the outside or corners in order that it 
will harden properly, then dip in the hardening bath to 
about ll^ inches deep. Then polish the face and allow 
the temper to run down to a light blue. If there is not 
enough heat in the spike maul to drive down the tem- 
per it can be drawn by holding the end over the fire, 
and slowly and continually turning it around until the 
temper is drawn to the desired color. Harden and tem- 
per both ends the same way, but be caretul not to draw 
the temper in the end which is already hardened and 
tempered while heating to harden the second end. 
However, if the large end is hardened and tempered 
first, there will be no danger of the temper drawing in 
the other end, as the small end can be heated so much 
quicker and so the heat has not time to run to the large 
end enough to draw the temper, but in cases where 
there is danger of the temper drawing, cool off the tem- 
pered end in water, A spike maul is not so apt to get 
hollowing in the center of the face as an ordinary ham- 
mer, but, instead, is more apt to break off at the cor- 
ners, so when dressing make the corners rounding, but 
not too much. 

The Claw Bar. 

In railroad construction, the claw bar is very exten- 
sively used, its principal use being to pull spikes. 
Dressing claw bars when badly broken is somewhat of 
a difficult task and requires skill to forge them to the 
proper shape. To dress a claw bar, as shown in Fig. 
101, when badly worn or broken, heat to a deep yellow 
heat, then forge to shape, as illustrated by side view 



172 



THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 



in figure, then close the claws, as a, a, front view in 
figure, to within % of an inch apart at the extreme 
ends. Now have a fuller as Fig. 103, which should be 



Front view. 




End view. 



Side view. 
Fig. 101 . Illustrating claw bar. 



Ys wider than the body of a railroad spike, and drive 
the fuller down between the claws. This will straighten 
the claws and bring them the right width apart. Now 




Fig. 102. Side view of opposite end of claw bar. 

have a small gouge and gouge out the claws from the 
front side, the extreme ends should be very thin (as 
shown in end view of figure, in order to go under the 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 



173 



head of a spike when pulling it), but should gradually 
become thicker back from the extreme ends. 

Claw bars must not be hardened or tempered, or they 
will break very easily when pulling a hard spike. The 
opposite end of a claw bar is generally made with a 




Fig. 103. Illustrating kind of fuller used, when dressing 
claw bars. 



bent chisel point as Fig. 102, which is used sometimes 
to loosen the spikes before pulling. There are also 
many different shapes of claw bars, but the one illus- 
trated is the principal one used, and they are all 
dressed after the same method or principle. 



CHAPTER XII. 

Miscellaneous tools — Case hardening. 

The Bricklayer's Set. 

A bricklayer's set has a very wide cutting edge, 
while the shank or handle is % octagon or square, to 
make one, take a wide piece of flat steel fuller in, then 
draw out the handle, after which the cutting edge is 
forged. But in case a piece of steel, as just men- 
tioned, cannot be had, the only way to forge the cut- 
ting edge (which should be about 3 inches wide) is by 



(E 




Fig. 104. The bricklayer's set. 

upsetting a piece of octagon or square steel as the case 
may be, then flatten out until wide enough. To put 
on the cutting edge file only from one side, the other 
side being left perfectly square and flat. 

Harden as any similar flat tool and draw the temper 
to a dark blue. All tools for cutting brick should be 
tempered to a light blue. 

174 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 



175 



How to Harden and Temper Wire Nippers or Pliers. 

Heat the jaws back a little past the cutting blades, as 
indicated by dotted line a, Fig. 105, to a very even 
cherry red, then dip into the hardening bath to dotted 
line b above the rivet. Now polish the upper side 




Fig. 105. The wire nippers, 

bright and draw the temper over the fire very slowly 
and evenly to a light blue, making sure that the cutting 
edges or teeth are properly tempered. These instruc- 
tions will apply to all similar tools. 



176 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 



How to Make a Razor. 

To make an ordinary razor use steel 3-16 by 7-16 of 
about 75 points carbon. After the shank is fullered 
in a little for the finger hold, then forged to shape, the 
blade is formed into shape by bending the steel a little 
edgewise, afterwards being forged, hammered and 
hardened, as is explained in making butcher knives 




Fig. 106. The razor. 

(which will be found in another chapter of this book), 
draw the temper to a purple. A razor is hollow ground 
after being tempered and which should be done by an 
expert, if a razor is made after these instructions and 
the hollow grinding done without drawing the temper, 
it will hold a very keen edge, which will equal any 
razor manufactured. End view, Fig. 106, illustrates 
shape of razor blade before being hollow ground. 

To Make a Scraper. 

A scraper for taking off paint, grease, etc., off boiler 
plate or any other material and leave a bright smooth 
surface, is chiefly made from octagon steel, the size of 
steel used according to the width of scraper required, 
although for an ordinary scraper % octagon will do. 
To make one, forge the steel perfectly flat % thick and 
about 3 inches in length and 1 inch wide. The end of 
the tool is left perfectly square, the scraping or cut- 
ting edges being the corners, which are ground very 
sharp. 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 



177 



To harden, heat to about 1 inch back from the scrap- 
ing edges, then quench in the hardening bath and cool 
off the whole tool entirely. Draw no temper as the tool 
is required to be very hard ; it will give excellent results 
if properly forged, hammered and hardened. 



F 



Fig. 107. Showing scraper for boiler plate, cast iron, etc. 



Hardening Jaw of Pipe Vise. 

To harden a jaw of a pipe vise, heat all the teeth to a 
very even cherry red or just enough to harden, then 
quench the whole tool edgewise from a vertical position 
in the hardening bath and cool off entirely. Polish one 
side bright and draw the temper to a dark blue by plac- 




Fig. 108. Jaw for pipe vise. 



ing the jaw on a heated iron plate which should be a 
little wider than the jaw, in order that the jaw may be 
tempered evenly. These instructions will apply to all 
tools for holding pipes, clamps for holding bolts and 
all similar tools. 



178 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 

Hardening and Tempering Blacksmiths' Bolt Clippers. 

A good set of bolt clippers is a tool prized very much 
by the general blacksmith, and yet very few black- 
smiths are capable of repairing them properly when 
they get out of order, the greatest trouble lying in the 
hardening and tempering. 

After the clippers are dressed and the cutting edges 
made to fit properly and closely together, heat the 
whole cutting edge to a very even cherry red, then 
quench in the hardening bath from an upright position 
to about one inch from the cutting edge. Polish the 
cutting edge bright and draw the temper slowly and 
evenly over the fire to a light blue. These directions 
for hardening and tempering bolt clippers apply to 
the kind that are used principally nowadays, which 
have a long shaped blade and by dipping into the hard- 
ening bath (after the fashion of hardening a cold 
chisel) one inch back from the cutting edge, will enable 
the temper to be drawn more accurate and evenly with 
no danger of the temper running out at any part of 
the cutting edge if the least care is exercised when 
drawing the temper over the fire. However, some bolt 
clippers are made with a short blade which is held in 
place by a set screw or some other contrivance, the knife 
or blade not exceeding one inch in length. In a case of 
this kind heat the whole blade to a very even cherry 
red, then quench the whole tool in the hardening bath 
and cool off entirely, afterwards drawing the temper 
on a piece of hot iron or by holding it over the fire. 

Bolt clippers are made exclusively for cutting iron 
bolts or rivets and must not be used to cut cast steel, if 
used on cast steel the clippers will lose their sharp cut- 
ting edges or will break. 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 179 

Tools for Punching or Gumming Cross Cut Saws. 

A punch and die for gumming cross cut saws are 
made a great deal after the same principle as a punch 
and die for punching teeth in stone cutters' chisels, 
with the exception that the saw tools are not beveled 
off, but instead are left perfectly flat, the hardening 
and tempering being the same. See "punching teeth in 
stone cutters' tools" in another chapter of this book. 
All punches for saw sets, after hardening, should be 
tempered to a light blue. 

The Scratchawl. 

A scratchawl for scratching or marking cast iron, 
boiler plate, etc., is as a rule made from small round 
steel, the point being drawn out very long and thin. 
To harden, heat to about Yz inch back from the point, 
but owing to the fineness of the tool be very careful 
not to overheat the extreme point, then quench and cool 
off entirely, draw no temper, as the point is required 
to be very hard. Most mechanics who have use for 
a scratchawl prefer the opposite end flattened and 
bent to shape as Fig. 109. 



Fig. 109. The scratchawl. 

Hardening and Tempering Circular Blades of Pipe 
Cutter. 

To harden circular blades of pipe cutter, heat the 
whole blade to a very even cherry red heat, then 
quench the whole tool and cool off entirely. After- 



180 



THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 



wards draw the temper to a dark blue on a piece of 
heated flat iron. Should there be a great many of these 
tools to be hardened at once and there is no heating fur- 
nace in the shop, place a piece of flat iron on the sur- 
face of the fire, heat it to a deep red heat, then place 
the blades on it, as the blades are of a flat shape it will 
not take long for them to heat hot enough to harden. 
Place 5 or 6 of the blades on the heated plate at one 
time, but watch carefully and keep turning them over 
for fear some of them should become a little overheated 
or heated in streaks. After quenching draw the temper 
also on a hot iron. 




A 
V 



Fig. 110, Flat and end views of circular blade for pipe cutter. 

Heating a Tool According to Its Shape. 

When heating, to harden tools of an irregular shape 
as an eccentric ring, Fig. Ill, the heavy or thick side 




Fig. 111. An eccentric ring. 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 181 

should be heated first, then allow the thin part to come 
up to the heat gradually so as to avoid unequal con- 
traction when hardening. When quenching plunge the 
heaviest part of the tool into the water first. 



Making, Hardening" and Tempering an Alligator Pipe 
Wrench. 

To make an alligator pipe wrench, take a piece of 
flat steel the size according to the size of wrench to be 
made, heat and then fuller in as a, b,, Fig. 112, after- 
wards drawing out the handle b, now cut off the four 
corners, as illustrated c, to shape as indicated by dot- 
ted lines with a thin splitting chisel which will give 
the shape of the wrench. Now punch a small hole in 
the wrench at d and cut out the part e as dotted lines. 
If the wrench is made where there is a machine shop 
the teeth can be put in with a planer, but if made in 
an ordinary blacksmith shop the teeth will have to be 
filed in. The teeth can be put in one or both jaws, as 
may be desired. Fig. 113 shows the completed wrench 
with teeth in one jaw. 

To harden, heat the jaw (having the teeth) enough to 
harden to dotted line a, Fig. 113, then quench into the 
hardening bath to dotted line b, polish one side bright 
and draw the temper over the fire to a dark blue. 
Should both jaws of the wrench have teeth it can be 
hardened and tempered after the same method, but if 
the wrench has teeth in only one jaw, it is not neces- 
sary to harden or temper the jaw having no teeth. 
These directions will apply to all kinds of alligator 
wrenches or similar tools. 



182 



c 


/ 

/ 




\ 






\ 1 


1 






\ / 




c 


\ 
\ 


'*d 


z 



THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 

c 



D .O 



Fig. 112. Showing how alliga- 
tor pipe wrench is made. 




Fig. 113. The com= 
pleted wrench. 



Hardening and Tempering Pruning Shear Blades. 

If the blade is short, heat the whole blade to an even 
cherry red heat, then quench in the hardening bath 
about an inch back from the cutting edge and in an 
upright position, afterwards polish and draw the tem- 
per over the fire to a light blue. Should the blade be 
long, say 6 inches or more, harden and temper as a 
butcher knife, mentioned elsewhere in this book. 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 183 

The Center Punch. 

A center punch for marking or centering holes that 
have to be drilled in iron, steel, etc., are drawn down 
to a very sharp point as shown in Fig. 114. After 
hardening, allow the temper to draw to a dark blue, 



(Tl T> 



Fig. 114. The center punch. 

which will do for punching all ordinary material, but 
for punching very hard metal the temper must be regu- 
lated accordingly. See instructions as is given in tem- 
pering a cold chisel in another chapter of this book. 

The Nail Set. 

A nail set for driving nails deep into the wood is gen- 
erally made from % octagon or square steel. The end 



(O 



: 



Fig. 115. The nail set. 

for striking upon the nail is tapered to % ar the point. 
Harden not less than % of an inch back from the point 
and draw the temper to a light blue. 

Hardening and Tempering Steel Stamps. 

Stamps for lettering or marking cold iron, steel, etc., 
are hardened as any ordinary tool by being heated and 
quenched about one inch from the stamping end, and 



184 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 

afterwards drawing the temper to a purple. Stamps 
for marking hot iron or steel will be best tempered to a 
light blue. When stamping cold material, be sure to 
always have the stamp perfectly level and firm on the 
material to be stamped, otherwise the tool will be apt 
to break. 

Making a Gouge. 

To make a gouge for cutting hot iron or steel, it 
must be first made as an ordinary hot or splitting 
chisel, but the cutting edge should be left a little 
wider than the body of the chisel, then it is placea 
over a bottom swage and while at a cherry red heat 
take a fuller and place it exactly in the center of the 
chisel and directly over the center of the swage, then 
strike the fuller a good blow or two with the sledge, 
which will set or force the chisel down into the swage 
and form the gouge. Bear in mind that a certain size 
of swage and fuller must be used according to the 
size of gouge to be made, for example, and to have the 
best success, supposing a gouge is to be made to cut a 
circle of one inch, the swage must be one inch and 
the fuller % of an inch in size. This method will also 
apply to making a carpenter's gouge. A gouge for 
cutting cold iron or steel must be left thicker than one 
made to cut hot material and which will require a 
smaller size of fuller when making one. Also bear in 
mind to have the steel at an even cherry red heat (but 
no hotter) when bending a gouge to shape, otherwise 
should it be bent while at a white or high yellow heat, 
the hammering which is done at a low heat (before 
bending) is all taken out and it will never hold a keen 
cutting edge or otherwise if the gouge should be bent 
at a very low or black red heat there will be strains put 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 185 

in the steel which will cause the gouge to crack while 
hardening. 

To harden a gouge, follow the directions given in 
hardening and tempering a blacksmith's hot or car- 
penter's chisel, which will be found fully illustrated 
in other chapters of this book. 

Hardening and Tempering Carpenters' Augers That 
Have Come Through a Fire. 

Although augers are made, hardened and tempered 
entirely in tool factories, there is often a case when an 
auger has simply lost its temper and become soft in a 
fire by the burning of hardware stores, etc., although 
otherwise the auger is not damaged in the least and 
which can be made as good as new (unless already over- 
heated) by the following method: Heat the auger very 
carefully in the blaze of the fire, making sure that the 
cutting edges and point are heated very evenly to a 
cherry red, then quench into the hardening bath about 
one inch back from the cutting edges, polish bright 
and draw the temper very carefully over the fire (hav- 
ing no blaze) to a dark blue. These instructions will 
apply to all augers, brace bits and all similar tools 
for boring wood. 

Case Hardening. 

Case hardening is a process that iron or soft ma- 
chinery steel is put through so that the outside will 
be made very hard, while the centre still remains in 
its soft state. Case hardening is a very useful treat- 
ment, as certain parts of machinery are to be very hard 
in order to stand the wear, and iron or soft machinery 
steel can be made to give very satisfactory results when 



186 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 

case hardened properly. For a great number of pur- 
poses machinery steel tools will take the place of tools 
made from cast steel, and is less expensive as the stock 
is cheaper and the tools are much more easily made and 
will last just as long when properly treated. 

When case hardening parts or ends of tools, such as 
set screws, the process is this : Heat the end of the set 
screw to be hardened to a bright cherry red, then roll 
the heated end into powdered prussiate of potash and 
return to the fire and heat to a bright cherry red, then 
plunge into cold water and cool off entirely, when it 
will come out of the water presenting a white appear- 
ance and will be found to be very hard if tested with a 
file. This method will apply to all small tools that are 
to be case hardened all over, but not to a great depth. 

When case hardening a great many tools at once 
where the whole surface is to be case hardened and 
to a great depth, pack in an iron box with any case 
hardening compound, such as granulated or charred 
bone, charred leather, charcoal and potash. But in 
packing the pieces or tools in the box be sure that they 
do not come in contact with the surface of the box or 
with each other, but keep at least % inch apart by 
packing the case hardening compound between. The 
box should be made air tight, and then placed in a fur- 
nace or heating oven which must be left there long 
enough according to the depth that the contents are to 
be case hardened. If the furnace is kept at a bright 
cherry red heat, the contents of the box will be case 
hardened to the depth and rate of 1-16 of an inch per 
hour. Afterwards the contents are taken from the box 
and quenched immediately in cold water and cooled 
off entirely. When quenching pieces or tools to be case 
hardened, the process is the same as cast steel, for ex- 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 187 

ample, take a flat piece of iron or soft steel 6 inches 
square by 1 inch thick it must be quenched by plung- 
ing into the water edgewise and from an upright posi- 
tion, also long slender pieces (for explanation 1 inch 
square and 6 inches long) must be quenched from a 
perfectly upright position and never at an angle, other- 
wise if the pieces are quenched at an angle they will be 
apt to warp. 



CHAPTER Xin. 

General information, pointers and ideas in reference to steel- 
work and toolmaking — Conclusion. 

The Correct Meaning- of a Cherry Red Heat. 

We often hear blacksmiths and other mechanics 
when in conversation about steel saying such a tool 
or piece of steel should be heated to a cherry red to 
harden or temper, but although their advice may be 
quite true how many are there who know the correct 
heat and meaning of a cherry red heat 1 If every black- 
smith and other mechanics who claim to know all about 
steel were judged according to the class of tools they 
make, then I am afraid there would be a great many 
who do not understand the correct heat or meaning of 
a cherry red heat. I personally know some blacksmiths 
and tooldressers who will tell me they know a great 
deal about steel and its nature, who, when they are 
hardening a piece of steel will often heat the steel to a 
bright yellow heat when they think it is a cherry red, 
while others again will not have the steel heated above 
a dull red heat, consequently the steel is heated too 
much or not enough to harden. But for the benefit of 
those who wish to know and are anxious to learn the 
real meaning of a cherry red heat, I will explain. A 
cherry red heat is the lowest heat at which a piece of 
steel containing 75 points carbon will harden suc- 
cessfully. But when hardening a piece of steel con- 
taining 100 points or 1 per cent of carbon a lower heat 

188 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 189 

than a cherry red will do to harden it, and it should 
always be well remembered that the lowest possible 
heat that any steel will be sure to harden at, so much 
better will be the results when the finished tool is put 
into use, consequently the steel (to have the best re- 
sults) must be heated to harden according to the car- 
bon it contains. 

Heating to Harden According to the Size of the Tool. 

When heating to harden large or heavy tools, it 
should be remembered the heat should be a shade 
higher than that used to harden small or thin tools as 
the water will act much quicker on a thin piece of 
steel than a thick piece. Thick heavy tools will cause 
a great amount of steam, which has a great tendency 
to hold the water back from the steel, and to more fully 
explain, if two pieces of steel are taken to be hardened, 
the larger piece being 3 inches square, the smaller 
being % of an inch square, but both pieces containing 
the same amount of carbon. Now if the smaller piece 
is heated to the lowest possible heat, that it will harden 
at successfully clear through the piece. Then heat the 
larger piece to exactly the same degree of heat, and it 
will be found after hardening upon close examination 
that only the corners are hardened. 

When quenching the ends of large tools or wholly, 
keep the water well agitated and so help to keep the 
water cooler next to the steel. If it is possible to have 
an overflow pipe attached to the hardening bath and 
another one to flow in at the same time, it will give 
good results when hardening large pieces as the hot 
water will continually flow away from the steel. 



190 THE TWENTIETH CENTUEY 



Charcoal for Heating* Steel. 

A saying that I have heard a great many times is, al- 
ways use charcoal to heat steel, while another saying 
is, steel is tougher when heated in charcoal. It has 
been found out by practical and scientific experience 
that sulphur is one of the greatest enemies to be avoided 
when heating steel, and while charcoal is free from 
sulphur it is the only advantage connected with char- 
coal to heat steel by. But as to toughen steel by heat- 
ing it in charcoal, is a saying entirely without foun- 
dation, as there is nothing that will toughen steel ex- 
cept by hammering it at a certain heat and hardening 
it at the proper heat. 

In reference to heating steel by the use of charcoal, it 
does not matter what kind of fuel is used so long as it 
is free from sulphur and the necessary heat can be ob- 
tained, whether it be charcoal, coke, coal, bark or corn- 
cobs. Now, reader, never adopt any old saying or 
process unless you have found out by experiment or 
trial that it is true. Some mechanics are too ready to 
pick up quack theories by having heard some one say 
so, and consequently when the advice is put into prac- 
tice the result is failure. Reader, there are too many 
mechanics who belong to this class, you must belong 
to the class who do their own thinking, which is the 
sure road to success. Again, never turn a deaf ear 
to any one who has a suggestion to make, no matter 
who the man is or what kind of clothes he wears, the 
author has picked up some very valuable information 
in this way from some of the most illiterate men who 
only excelled in one point and which has been found 
out by experiment to be reliable. 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 191 

The Scaling of Steel After Hardening. 

The scaling of steel after hardening, as a rule, is 
never observed by the average steelworker, but to the 
expert it means a great deal. By the way the steel 
scales off a good steelworker is enabled to tell good 
or poor steel, also hard or soft steel, hard steel contain- 
ing 100 points carbon if heated to a cherry red will 
scale off clean, leaving a white surface, while a piece 
of medium carbon steel of 75 points of good quality 
and heated to a cherry red will scale off in spots leav- 
ing a speckled black and white surface, but the scales 
left on will be very thin and light. But if a piece of 
steel of medium carbon and of poor quality be hard- 
ened, the scales left on will be of a thick and heavy na- 
ture, and steel very low in carbon and of poor quality 
will not scale off at all unless heated to a bright cherry 
red (almost yellow). This class of steel is worthless for 
making good tools. The temper of a tool may also 
be regulated by the way the steel scales off. For illus- 
tration, if a cold chisel (for ordinary work) after hard- 
ening should be partly scaled off, the temper should 
be drawn to an ordinary light blue, but should it scale 
off perfectly clean and white allow the temper to draw 
to a very light blue, bordering on a grey. 

Sometimes when heating steel in a coke or smoky 
fire the steel will scale off as already mentioned, but in- 
stead of leaving a white surface it will present a very 
dark surface and unless observed closely it will be 
hard to tell whether the steel has scaled off or not. 
The scaling of steel, however, is only in reference to 
tools that are hardened after being finished at the 
anvil, as tools that are ground bright on a grindstone 
or otherwise machined will not scale off. 



192 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 

By the scaling of steel a good steelworker can tell 
if the tool has been overheated when hardening, as the 
surface of overheated steel will show a very bright 
white color, the best way, however, to learn the differ- 
ence as regards the scaling off of a piece of overheated 
steel and of steel that was hardened at the proper 
heat, take two pieces of steel from the same bar of 
good quality and medium carbon, then heat one to a 
cherry red and the other to a deep yellow or white. 

Quality and Quantity. 

If tools can be made or repaired very quickly and in 
great quantities by a toolsmith or any mechanic, pro- 
ducing at the same time excellent quality, it will be a 
great saving of time, but there are very few who have 
such good ability. But to the ordinary toolsmith or 
steelworker I wish to give this advice, "Let quality at 
all times be preferred to quantity," and always see how 
well you can make a tool before seeing how fast you car 
make it, speed will naturally come but quality must be 
practiced in the beginning. For illustration, we will 
take two different toolsmiths who are making cold 
chisels, one may be able to make in his own way 50 
chisels while the other man is only making 25, but the 
one who makes 25 is having a much easier time and is 
always up to his work, although he has as many me- 
chanics to keep at work as the man who makes 50, but 
how is that the reader asks; it is because he prefers 
quality first. The other man is working as hard as he 
can, he never catches up to his work because he prefers 
quantity first. The slow man in action but not in work- 
manship makes one chisel that does as much work as 
three chisels made by the swift man, consequently 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 193 

every chisel made by one toolsmitli does its work while 
almost every chisel made by the other toolsmith is con- 
tinually breaking, bending or being too soft. 

Quick Methods of Working. 

When making or dressing a great many tools of the 
same shape and used for the same purpose, first of all 
consider the quality, then consider quantity and the 
quickest way of doing the work. For example, suppos- 
ing 25 cold chisels are brought at one time to the tool- 
smith to be dressed, do not dress, harden and temper 
them one by one, but instead dress or draw out all the 
chisels (using two pair of tongs and so keeping one 
chisel heating in the fire while the other one is being 
drawn out) before hardening and tempering them. 

When hardening the chisels have the surface of the 
fire flat, then lay about 4 of the chisels on top of the 
fire and heat very slowly, as they become hot enough to 
harden quench deep into the hardening bath. After 
polishing lay the chisel down on the forge or in some 
very convenient place near the fire (so that the tool- 
smith may be able to watch the chisels that are on the 
fire and also watch the temper drawing on others) and 
allow the temper to draw on its own accord, if there is 
plenty of heat left in the chisel back from the hardened 
part although dipped 1% inches into the hardening 
bath, the temper will often draw showing a light blue 
color 1^/4 inches back from the cutting edge, but if the 
temper does not draw quite to the necessary color on its 
own accord hold it over the fire. When heating the 
chisels for hardening after this method let the helper 
(if you have one) keep the chisels placed on the fire in 
order that they may be continually heating, as others 



191 THE TWENTIETH CENTUEY 

are taken away to be hardened, "but do not trust the 
helper" to heat them to the right heat, as the toolsmith 
must watch the hardening heat himself as he is respon- 
sible for the quality of the tool. With a good helper, 
the author has dressed, hardened and tempered from 
15 to 20 flat cold chisels per hour after the method al- 
ready explained, and every chisel guaranteed to give 
the best of satisfaction by chipping as hard steel, as 
the chisel is made from. 

When dressing granite cutters' tools, keep 3 or 4 in 
the fire gradually heating and as one becomes hot, 
enough to dress, dress it and return to the fire to heat 
for hardening (as granite tools do not require to be 
heated very far back from the cutting edge, when hard- 
ening they can be heated very quickly), when hot enough 
to harden, quench it deep into the hardening bath, then 
rub it across the sand board to brighten, afterwards 
placing it on a piece of sheet iron or tin attached to a 
tub of water (not the hardening bath) and allow the 
temper to draw on the tool by its own accord, as gran- 
ite tools do not require much temper, very little heat 
left in the tool after quenching will be sufficient to 
draw the temper to the desired color, and as the tem- 
per becomes drawn in a tool push it off into the water 
to cool off. After a little practice and having all the 
tools, etc., placed in a very convenient position, 50 to 60 
tools such as points, chisels, and small drills can be 
dressed, hardened and tempered, in one hour. 

When hardening and tempering a great many small 
machinist's or riveting hammers, harden both ends at 
once by holding the hammer in an upright position and 
reversing the ends of the hammer back and forth into 
the fire (thus heating the ends hot enough to harden, 
but keeping the eye of the hammer soft), then plunge 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 



195 



the whole hammer into the hardening bath and cool 
off entirel}^, then polish bright. To draw the temper, 
heat a large iron block (say 6 inches square and 4 
inches thick) to a deep yellow heat, now place the 
hardened hammers across the corners of the heated 
block, having the eye directly on the block and so al- 
lowing the ends to project out from the heated block 
as shown by dotted lines. Fig. 116. By this method of 




Fig. 116. Illustrating quick way of tempering small hammers. 



tempering small hammers, the temper will draw in the 
eye first if the hammer is turned over occasionally, aft- 
erwards the temper will draw in the ends, by keeping 
4 hammers on the block at once they can be tempered 
very quickly. If one end of a hammer should draw 
the temper before the other cool it off, but not any fur- 
ther back than the eye, then place on the heated block 
again until the temper is drawn in the other end. 

When forging tools, keep your hand tools well ar- 
ranged in a very convenient place close to the anvil 
and so be able to put your hand on the tool at once 
(which is required) and save lifting or moving a great 
many other unnecessary tools. 



196 THE TWENTIETH. CENTURY 

Cracks in Steel. 

Anyone who lias had any experience working steel 
or making tools has noticed cracks in the steel as 
shown in the cold chisel, Fig. 117. These cracks are 
often called "water cracks" and some will say the 
water was too cold, but the real causes are having the 
steel too hot when hardening and unevenly forging the 
tool at too low a heat, and if the tool has been forged 
at a very low heat then overheated when hardening, 
cracks in the steel are almost sure to be the result 
Any tool that has a crack in it, no matter how small, 
will break very easy when put in use. 

Slighting Tools. 

Any toolsmith who wants to do good work in order 
that he may gain a good reputation cannot afford to 
be careless or slight the tools he is to make or repair, 
but should at all times do the work to the best of his 
ability. When dressing cold chisels as the one illus- 
trated in Fig. 117 (or any similar tool) do not attempt 




Fig. 117. Showing cracks in cutting edge of a cold chisel. 

to dress it by leaving the cracks in it, but cut off the 
end of the chisel as far back as the cracks are visible 
in the steel. 

A steelworker should never get in the habit of doing 
much talking while a piece of steel is heating in the 
fire, and more especially if the steel should be heating 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 197 

to be hardened, a great many expensive tools have been 
entirely destroyed by doing too much talking, thus 
causing the toolsmith to forget his work. If you have 
a lot of talking to do which is apt to draw your atten- 
tion away from the fire, take the steel out of the fire 
and lay it to one side until you are through with the 
conversation, as there is no work which demands closer 
attention and greater care than successful toolmaking. 
Also, do not get excited when working steel, as no one 
can work steel successfully if he is of an excited and 
nervous nature and never attempt to make tools when 
under the influence of strong drink, to work steel suc- 
cessfully the steelworker must have a clear brain and 
be patient, careful and have a quick and decisive judg- 
ment. 

The Result of Being a Successful Steelworker. 

The keynote of being a successful steelworker is 
"economy," and any large manufacturing company 
having in its employ an expert steelworker will be a 
great amount of money ahead at the end of a year, this 
result caused by the saving of steel and also labor. For 
example, I have been in large manufacturing estab- 
lishments where they had a poor toolsmith in their em- 
ploy, and the results were, a great many mechanics 
were losing time going back and forth to the tool fire 
in order that they might get a tool to do good work. 
I have known machinists and others to go to the tool 
fire 3 or 4 times (while once is enough) before they 
would get a tool to do its work, and in some cases they 
never got a first-class tool. 

Not only is the result of being a successful steel- 
worker or toolsmith a great saving to the firm or com- 



198 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 

pany he is employed with, but a saving of a great 
amount of unnecessary work and trouble to himself. 
A first-class toolsmith will keep a much larger gang of 
mechanics at work, when placed beside a toolsmith 
whose knowledge concerning steelwork or toolmaking 
is very limited. 

Hardening Tools That Are Forged By Another 
Mechanic. 

No blacksmith or steelworker should assume the re- 
sponsibility of hardening tools (especially if expen- 
sive) that are forged by another mechanic, for if the 
tool should crack when hardening (or in any other 
way not prove satisfactory) the blame will fall on the 
mechanic who hardens the tool, although the one 
who deserves the blame is the man who forged the 
tool, as he left strains in the steel by irregular heating 
and irregular hammering. It does not signify how 
expert the hardener may be, as the steel is still bound 
to crack if not forged properly. 

Sayings and Ideas of Mechanics in Reference to Steel. 

Steel is one of the greatest and favorite subjects for 
discussion among mechanics, and the consequence is a 
great many different theories, sayings and ideas arise 
in their minds as to what they think is the best way of 
working it, and the toolsmith is in a position to hear 
the idea of each mechanic when wanting a tool made or 
repaired. But the toolsmith must do as he thinks 
right as regards the working of the steel, but as to the 
shape of the tool he must follow the mechanic's in- 
structions. For example, I will give a few of the say- 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 199 

ings and ideas which I have gathered up at the tool 
fire, although other sayings are mentioned in this book. 
Some mechanics have a habit of trying a tool with a 
file before using it, and not long ago I made a chisel 
for a machinist. After I had it made he took it away 
and in a few minutes returned with the chisel filed to 
an edge. He came up to me and said, "This chisel is 
no good because I can file it!" I asked him if he had 
tried it. He said, "No, there is no use of me trying 
it when I can file it so easy ! " I told him to go and try 
it. He went and tried it and was convinced that the 
chisel would hold a good edge although he was able to 
file it. Now I wish to say to anyone who uses a cold 
chisel, although a chisel will chip cast steel and at the 
same time hold a good edge, it can be very easily filed 
to an edge with the use of a new or sharp file. 

An idea with a great many so-called steelworkers is, 
thej^ will say, it does not matter Low hot steel is heated 
(so long as it is not burnt) when hardening, if it is 
put in the water at a cherry red. Now I wish to say 
in reference to this idea, although the result will not 
be as bad, neither will the steel be so liable to crack 
as when quenching the steel at a deep yellow or white 
heat, but the steel will never be in a fine crystalized 
state or hold a keen cutting edge as a piece of steel 
heated to the proper hardening heat, which is men- 
tioned so often in this book. Again, steel should never 
be held in the air to cool off after it leaves the fire 
when it is to be hardened, so bear in mind when hard- 
ening steel to quench it in the hardening bath directly 
after it leaves the fire, and have the hardening bath as 
close to the fire as possible and in a convenient place. 

Forge steel at a low heat is an old saying of a great 
many, and likewise a great many blacksmiths believe 



200 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 

it and so forge the steel at a cherry red heat. I have 
already mentioned about the dangerous practice and 
hard work of forging steel at a low heat, but for the 
benefit of any reader who is connected with the work- 
ing of steel, I will give this information, trusting it 
will be well remembered. Forge cast steel in the be- 
ginning at a deep yellow heat, and if the steel is heated 
to a white heat (so long as it is not burnt) it will be 
all right, but lessen the heat as the tool nears the fin- 
ished stage, all tools should be finished at a very low 
heat, especially all edged tools having a flat surface. 
Never upset east steel is another old saying of some 
steelworkers, and when they are asked the reason why 
they will generally reply, ''It opens the grain and 
spoils the steel," and I have known some blacksmiths 
who refused to make certain tools, saying to the cus- 
tomer the steel was not large enough without upset- 
ting and that would spoil the steel. Reader, upsetting 
spoils the steel is an old saying, but that is all there is 
to it, as there is practically no foundation in the theory 
and there is positively no grain in steel. Sometimes 
there happens to be seams lengthwise in the bar but 
that is a fault of the manufacturer. A piece of good 
steel may be said to resemble a piece of putty, which 
can be worked in any way and still produce the same 
results so far as the grain is concerned. The author 
has upset steel to three times its original size and when 
finished gave as good satisfaction as if it had not 
been upset at all. But to more fully explain, take a 
piece of octagon steel and make it into a chisel and 
when made the chisel is found to cut first class, now 
what is to hinder us from making a chisel on the op- 
posite end. There is simply nothing at all, "and yet 
we are upsetting it, as drawing the steel out on one 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKEB 201 

end is working the steel in the same direction as upset- 
ting it in the other end. Now, reader, remember this : 
A cutting edge can be put on the side of the octagon 
bar and still stand as well as if put on at the end; 
also the steel can be upset, crooked or bent any shape 
or form and still hold a first-class cutting edge when 
properly worked. 

Why Some Tools Are Soft When Put Into Use. 

There are different reasons for tools being soft when 
put into use. However, the main reason is, the tool 
has not been hardened successfully as the steel was not 
hot enough when quenched into the hardening bath, 
and if the steel has not been hardened it matters not 
whether any temper is drawn or not the tool will be 
soft just the same. Another reason why a tool is 
often said to be soft by some mechanics when bringing 
it to the toolsmith to be repaired, is because the tool 
has been used on hard cast iron while the tool was not 
tempered to cut anything harder than ordinary cast 
steel, consequently the cutting edge turns over when 
coming into contact with the hard metal. 

Still another reason, although the tool may be hard- 
ened and tempered properly, it is quite a common oc- 
currence that the temper is drawn when grinding on 
an emery wheel. 

Reasons Why Tools Break When in Use. 

A few of the main reasons why tools break when 
in use are — overheating of the steel when hardening, 
and improper forging which will cause cracks in the 
steel, also by leaving the temper too high, making the 
tools too thin and using a poor quality of steel. An- 



202 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 

other reason for tools breaking is the result of putting 
tools to a use for which they were not intended. For 
explanation, I have had mechanics bring me broken 
cold chisels (and having made the chisels myself, I 
could certify that they were forged, hardened and tem- 
pered correctly) and when I would make inquiries to 
ascertain how the chisels were broken, the mechanic 
would say he was using them for wedges. Very often 
the toolsmith worries and so keeps himself in hot water 
when broken tools come to him to be dressed, as he 
thinks he is to blame because he thinks he did not 
make the tools properly. This is a great mistake on 
the toolsmith 's part, for in a great many cases the me- 
chanic who is using the tools is to blame, for if a tool 
is put into a use for which it is not intended or used 
carelessly it does not signify how well the tools are 
forged, hardened or tempered, they will break just the 
same, and for the benefit of every blacksmith or tool- 
smith who chances to get a copy of this book, I say 
follow the instructions closely concerning each tool, 
and then if the tools are broken when in use 9 cases 
out of 10 the fault will lie with the mechanic who was 
using the tool. When a tool is broken look at the 
fracture of the break, if it presents a close grain re- 
sembling a piece of glass the tool has been hardened 
properly. But, instead, should the break present a 
very coarse fracture resembling somewhat a piece of 
honeycomb, the tool has been improperly hardened by 
overheating, and in a case of this kind the toolsmith 
is to blame for the tool breaking. Tools used in ver}^ 
cold and frosty weather will break much easier than in 
warm weather, especially if used outside in the open 
air. 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKEB 203 

Necessary Tools. 

I have often strolled into a country or general black- 
smith shop and found the blacksmith trying to forge 
a piece of neat work, by using simply a hammer and 
the anvil. It is quite possible that a great amount of 
work can be accomplished with only a hammer and 
the anvil, but the work is limited and very often after 
forging the article as near the shape as is possible, the 
blacksmith will often wear out a new file by filing the 
article to the finished shape, while the money that he 
pays out for files would soon amount up enough to buy 
him a good outfit of anvil tools or pay him for the 
time it would take to make them. By having a good 
outfit of tools, a great many jobs can be done in half 
the time and give a much neater appearance. The 
most necessary tools required in the ordinary black- 
smith shop, aside from a good anvil and hammer are 
tongs for holding different shapes and sizes, fullers 
and swages ranging in size from i/4 inch to 2 inches, a 
flatter, set hammer, a hot and cold chisel, and a 
hardy. Of course there are a great many useful tools 
that I could mention, such as are used in large and up- 
to-date shops, but in a small shop it would not pay to 
keep them all on hand. However, the ones already 
mentioned should always be kept on hand. Any black- 
smith who is employed in a large machine, locomotive, 
or any large shop, should always be on the lookout to 
have as good an outfit of tools as anyone else in the 
shop, and so save borrowing from another fire. Al- 
though in some cases it is necessary to borrow, but 
when borrowing tools from another fire bear in mind 
to take them back as soon as possible, otherwise it may 
cause trouble. 



204 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 

Welding Compomids. 

There are a great many different kinds of welding 
compounds, but the kind that is most extensively used 
and most commonly known is borax. The borax 
should be crushed to a fine powder to have the best 
results, and if wrought iron drillings (that are very 
fine and free from oil) be mixed it will increase the 
welding qualities of the borax by causing the steel to 
unite more readily. 

Although all the instructions that I have given in 
the previous chapters (in reference to welding) is with ' 
the use of borax, there are other compounds which I 
have used with great success. A welding compound 
that I will recommend to the reader is the Climax, 
manufactured by the Cortland Welding Compound 
Co., Cortland, N. Y. This compound is very valuable 
when welding steel, especially when taking separate 
heats, as the steel will unite very readily and not slip 
away as is sometimes the case when using plain borax. 
When using the Climax Welding Compound be sure 
and follow the directions given by the manufacturer 
and also the instructions that I have given in this book 
in reference to the welding heat of steel. 

Hardening Compounds. 

There are many kinds of compounds used for hard- 
ening steel and most of them are of no value. Some 
blacksmith will have a certain compound which he 
says will toughen the steel, another will say he has 
something that will improve the steel, while others 
think, no matter how the steel is worked or heated if it 
is only dipped in some wonderful liquid kept in a 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORIvER 205 

fancy pail or bucket the steel will be all right, and 
some have said to me in my travels, "If I knew what 
you had in the bucket I could make the tools stand as 
well as you." To explain, I happened to be in a coun- 
try village and asked the village blacksmith to let me 
have a fire which he was not using, as I had some mill 
picks, axes and chisels to dress. Well, I went to work 
and put some salt into a bucket of water, but as I 
wanted to have a joke on the blacksmith, I had the 
salt in different sizes of paper bags, so of course as I 
was emptying the different papers the blacksmith and 
his apprentice were watching me very closely, and as 
they had heard I was coming to the shop they wanted 
to learn all they could. However, I went to work and 
dressed the tools, occasionally showing the blacksmith 
what they would do, then I went away and left the 
brine in the pail as I was not expected back again. 
The next day the story was circulated that I went 
away and left the mixture in a pail, and the village 
blacksmith could temper tools now as well as I, con- 
sequently some of his customers heard of it and they 
were taking him some tools and he soon had a large 
number of tools to dress. But a few days after I hap- 
pened to be in the same village and so I called into the 
blacksmith shop to have a conversation. The black- 
smith not expecting me, I caught him at work on some 
tools that had just come in to be dressed, and after 
taking a look around the shop I saw some other tools 
that the blacksmith had dressed, but they were re- 
turned to him to do over again, as they were broken. 
Not only were the tools broken and giving poor sat- 
isfaction, but the blacksmith was getting himself in hot 
water by spoiling his customers' tools and trying to do 
something which he did not understand. This may 



206 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 

look like a fish story to the reader, but nevertheless it 
is quite true and I could relate other such happenings. 
Now, reader, there is positively no witchcraft or 
common sense connected with hardening compounds, 
as they neither toughen or improve the steel ; not only 
are they of no value, but the blacksmith would need 
almost a drug store to mix some of them, while the 
blacksmith works too hard for his money to spend it on 
such rubbish. The best hardening compound is simply 
clean cold water and salt to form a brine ; the water 
should contain as much salt as the water will soak up 
or dissolve. This is the best compound yet discovered 
to harden steel at a low heat, and, reader, bear in mind 
that the lower the heat which steel can be hardened at 
the tougher it will be, and this is one of the greatest 
secrets connected with toughening steel. Keep the 
hardening bath as clean and as cold as possible. Water 
and brine are the only two hardening compounds used 
by the author. 

How to Determine the Temper of Tools. 

As much information could be given regarding the 
shape of the tool as the temper, and if tools are to be 
made to cut or work on material that is not mentioned 
in this book, it would be best to find out what hardness 
the material is also if the tool is to do its work by 
steady pressure as a lathe tool or by a blow from a 
hammer as a cold chisel. If the tool is to do its work 
by striking it with a hammer, it must be ascertained 
how heavy the blow is to be. For example, if the tool 
is struck very lightly, although the tool is to chip very 
hard material, it can be drawn out very thin, but if the 
blow is very heavy the tool must be made heavy and 
thick accordingly, to stand the force of the blow. 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKEE 207 

When making tools to work on strange material, it 
will be best to make them on the thick and temper 
them on the soft side, after which the hardness of the 
temper can be increased and the thickness of the tool 
reduced to whatever gives the workman (who is to use 
it) the best satisfaction. If it should be otherwise by 
having the tools drawn out too thin and the temper 
left too hard, causing the tools to break very easy, 
there will be a good many chances to one if the black- 
smith or tool dresser does not lose his job, so make 
sure and be on the safe side in the beginning. To more 
fully explain : I have known blacksmiths to take jobs 
sharpening granite cutters' tools, and although the 
tools were hardened and tempered first class they were 
drawn out too thin, consequently the tools were easily 
broken, as the hammers used by ordinary granite cut- 
ters are very heavy, and likewise the blows that are 
struck upon the tools ''are very heavy," and as gran- 
ite tools require a hard temper in order to cut or chip 
the stone, the only method to fall back on for safety is 
to increase the thickness of the tool by not drawing it 
out so thin. 

There are times howevtr when it is quite a difficult 
problem to determine the correct temper. Take for 
example, the toolsmith who is making or dressing the 
chisels in a large locomotive shop, when a large num- 
ber of chisels is brought to him to be dressed at one 
time, he does not know if a certain chisel is going to 
be used in the erecting department or at the motion 
bench. A chisel used in the erecting department has 
to stand a great amount of rough usage by being used 
for a wedge, but does not chip any hard material 
more than splitting iron nuts, this chisel when dressing 
(and its use is understood) should not be drawn out so 



208 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 

thin as a chisel that is to do fine chipping, and it may 
be classed as the ordinary chisel (see chisel No. 2, Fig. 
16, shown in another chapter of this book) . The temper 
should be drawn to a very light blue almost a grey. 
But a chisel used by a machinist at the motion bench 
can be drawn out very thin (see chisel No. 1 of the 
same figure as just previously mentioned). The reason 
why this chisel can be drawn out so thin, is because 
the machinist as a rule is an expert in using a chisel, 
as he strikes it squarely on the head and holds it firm 
to the material he is chipping, consequently the temper 
"can be left harder" without fear of the chis2l break- 
ng. 

Overheating Tools. 

If at any time tools of a flat surface such as cold 
chisels, axes, etc., become overheated when hardening, 
never attempt to quench the tool in the hardening bath 
while the steel is at such a high heat but rehammer 
it at a low heat equally on both sides, then the tool 
is all right again to be heated to harden. Should the 
tool be quenched or hardened at such a high heat, it is 
very apt to crack while hardening or it will break 
very easy when in use. Tools of irregular shape such 
as milling cutters, taps, dies, etc., cannot be worked 
over again with the hammer, consequently great care 
must be exercised when heating to harden or the tool 
will be ruined, but if the tool is not heated hot enough 
to harden the first time no harm L done and it can be 
heated again to a little higher heat. 

Cutting Steel When Cold. 

Cutting the steel cold is a very satisfactory method, 
when bar steel is to be cut or broken into certain 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 209 

lengths, as when making cold chisels or other similar 
tools but the advantage of this method will cease when 
cutting steel over a certain size. For example, octa- 
gon, round or square cast steel ranging from the smal- 
lest size up to 1^/4 inches in diameter, can be broken 
very quickly ...nd satisfactorily when perfectly cold, by 
nicking the bar equally from all sides, afterwards 
placing the nicked part of the bar directly over the 
square hole of the anvil, then striking it with a sledge 
when it will break. But care must be exercised when 
breaking steel after this method, as the pieces are very 
apt to fly and strike the blacksmith or his helper, but 
to overcome this danger place the handle of the chisel 
on the piece which is to be broken off before striking 
it with the sledge, which will prevent the piece from 
flying. When nicking the steel, hold the chisel so as 
to cut in a straight line and so enable the steel to break 
off square on the ends. 

To enable the steel to break with greater ease pour 
a little cold water directly on the nicked part of the 
steel. By pouring cold water on the steel all the heat 
is taken out, as steel will break more readily when 
perfectly cold than when it is warm. 

Breaking a bar of steel cold, is a very good way of 
finding out the hardness or the quality of the steel, for 
example take a bar of % or % steel (after being 
nicked) if the steel breaks with one or two blows from 
the sledge it denotes hard steel, but soft steel will re- 
quire five or six blows before it breaks ; also hard steel 
(by looking at the break) will show a fine and close 
fracture, but the fracture of soft steel will be more 
coarse and rough. If the steel is of good quality, the 
break or fracture will show a very uniform and silvery 
white appearance clear through the bar, but if the 



210 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 

steel is of a poor quality it will show a dull brown 
appearance. 

To test steel bars that are too large to break cold, 
for example a bar two inches in diameter, heat the 
bar to a deep cherry red, then cut in from all sides 
say half an inch deep with a hot chisel, then lay the 
bar down to cool and when it is perfectly cold it may 
be broken by striking it with a sledge or dropping the 
bar over the anvil and the quality or hardness can be 
judged as formerly explained. But bear in mind that 
the steel must not be heated above a deep cherry red 
(in order to cut in the nick) or the fracture when' 
broken cannot be judged correct, as a high heat in the 
steel would materially change the appearance and 
form of the fracture. I also wish to add, when cutting 
a great amount of cold steel at one time, dampen the 
cutting edge of the chisel with oil ; again, if used with 
care the chisel may be tempered to a purple without 
danger of breaking if made from steel of the proper 
hardness. 

Oil Tempering. 

Oil tempering, although often talked about, is a 
process little understood by the average blacksmith 
or steelworker and a great many mechanics have the 
idea that oil tempering is simply cooling off the steel 
in oil after the temper has been drawn. But to those 
whose knowledge is very limited as regards oil tem- 
pering, I will give the process, thus: In some large 
tool factories where tempering by colors is done SiYva.y 
with, the temper is drawn on the tool after hardening 
by placing it in a vat of heated oil, the temper can 
be drawn to any degree according to the degree of 
heat the oil is heated to, which is registered by a ther- 
mometer attached to the vat. 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 211 

Oil tempering does not refine the steel in any way 
as some mechanics think it does, but it has an advan- 
tage in this way, the temper can be drawn very even- 
ly to any degree, also when drawing the temper in 
oil the steel does not have to be polished. 

Drawing the Temper over the Open or Blacksmith's 

Fire. 

The method of drawing the temper on tools over the 
fire is a very useful one, although a great many black- 
smiths or tooldressers are not acquainted with it, as 
they think the only way is to let the temper run down 
on its own accord. I have already explained the meth- 
od many times in this book, but there are a few ideas 
I wish to add. Of course the work that can be accom- 
plished by this method is limited to a certain class 
of tools; take for example tools that are partly hard- 
ened, such as cold chisels, axes, or any similar tools. 

Very often a tool is dipped a little too deep in the 
hardening bath, consequently there isn't enough heat 
left in the tool to allow the temper to run down on its 
own accord to the desired color, and so the necessary 
temper must be drawn over the fire if the best results 
are to be expected. 

When drawing the temper over the fire be careful 
not to have too much blaze (better still to have no 
blaze), and do not have a smoky fire if it can be 
avoided, but in case the fire is smoky have a piece of 
cloth made stiff by winding around it a piece of fine, 
pliable wire, so that when drawing the temper, occa- 
sionally brush the tool with the cloth (where the tem- 
per is to be drawn), which will take off the smoke and 
keep the tool bright, and also allow the temper to be 



212 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 

seen and drawn with greater ease and exactness. Again, 
when drawing the temper over the fire, do not hold 
the tool too close, but hold it about two inches above 
the surface of the fire. Also bear in mind, do not give 
the fire too strong a blast (just enough to keep the 
fire bright is plenty), as it will draw the temper too 
quickly on the extreme cutting edge first. Do not 
hold the tool perfectly still when drawing the temper 
as there may be a hotter spot in one place in the fire 
than another which would draw the temper in streaks, 
but move the tool sideways or lengthways back and 
forth whichever is best to suit the shape of the tool, 
until the temper is drawn very evenly. 

If one side of a tool is seen to be drawing the neces- 
sary temper first, lower the other side nearer to the 
fire ; this information will apply more especially to 
tools having a wide and unequal shape. Also when 
drawing the temper on tools, such as round punches 
or any similar tool that are partly hardened, keep the 
tool slowly and continually revolving around, in order 
to draw the temper very evenly on all sides. Other- 
wise if a round tool is held perfectly still over the fire, 
one side will draw to a blue while the opposite side 
will only heat to a straw color, unless the tool is very 
small. 

More Points on Hammering Steel. 

When hammering steel in the finishing stage to 
refine it, bear in mind to forge the tool as near the 
shape or size as possible while the steel is at a bright 
yellow heat, but leaving the tool a trifle large or thick, 
as the tool will naturally require a little stock in order 
that the tool will be the right width or size after being 
hammered. This information will apply more partic- 
ularly to tools of a flat shape. 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 213 

Too much hammering is not good for steel, for ex- 
ample, supposing the toolsmith has a flat cold chisel 
to draw out. He draws out the chisel and hammers it 
in the finishing stage to refine the steel. Now after 
the chisel has been drawn out to a certain thickness 
and hammered sufficiently, the toolsmith decides he 
will have to draw the chisel much thinner as he has 
been informed the chisel is to do some very fine chip- 
ping. But I want to say to the toolsmith right here, 
do not draw the chisel thinner by continuing to ham- 
mer it at a low heat, because it will have a great 
tendency to cause strains in the steel, which would 
result by cracking when hardening. But to draw the 
chisel thinner, heat it again to a bright yellow heat, 
then draw out to almost as thin as is required, then 
finish by hammering it as before. 

Do not attempt to bend cast steel at a dull red or 
black heat after it has been hammered, as that would 
destroy all the tenacity put in the steel by hammering. 
If the steel is to be bent after it has been hammered, 
heat the steel to a cherry red heat, although a certain 
amount of the tenacity will be destroyed, yet not 
enough to injure the quality of the steel. But if the 
steel should be hammered, then bent at a black heal 
or otherwise should it be bent at a white heat, then 
all the toughness has been taken out of the steel. This 
information will apply to fine flat springs that some- 
times have to be bent to the correct shape after the 
hammering has been done, and will also apply when 
bending lips on flat drills. 

The correct heat for hammering steel so that it will 
be refined and made tough, is a dull red heat, but do 
not hammer steel after it becomes black, beaause if the 
steel is hammered after it becomes black it will be 



214 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 

brittle and flakey, which will cause the cutting edge 
of the tool to break more easily when put in use. 

Very often cold chisels or similar tools are brought 
to the toolsmith to be hardened and tempered which 
were forged by another mechanic whose knowledge 
concerning steel was very limited. Now "if the best 
results are expected" do not simply harden and tem- 
per the chisel, as the chisel must likewise be ham- 
mered. But the toolsmith will say the chisel is already 
drawn out thin enough, but we will suppose it is, heat 
the chisel to a bright cherry red heat and upset it ^ 
little, which will give a little stock to allow it to be 
hammered to the right size again, also, by upsetting 
the chisel will help to take out any light strains which 
may have been put in the steel by the man who forged 
the chisel. 

Again, when hammering steel do not use too light a 
hammer as it is only time lost. A hammer weighing 
two pounds is plenty light enough, and when hammer- 
ing cold chisels (unless very fine) always strike level 
and as hard as you can, in order to pack and refine the 
steel sufficiently. Bear in mind when hammering tools 
that have a flat surface for the last time, never strike 
one blow edgewise but strike every blow on the flat 
surface and both sides the same. 

How to Improve. 

Improvement is the gateway of true success in every 
art, trade or profession, and which applies especially 
to the toolsmith. To improve, the toolsmith must be 
devoted to his work and give it his whole mind and 
attention, as no toolsmith will ever be a successful 
steelworker, if he allows himself to become discon- 
tented by thinking that some other business or trade is 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 215 

better than his own, or if he only works at his own 
trade to make a living, and consequently all the time 
looking for quitting time and payday. 

To the toolsmith who is determined to improve and 
be in the front rank, I wish to give this advice, first 
of all read and study this book from beginning to end. 
do not simply read it once but read it many times until 
you have the contents almost by heart, and put the 
instructions into practice. If you are making or dress- 
ing any tool that is mentioned in this book and it 
should happen to break or in any other way not give 
satisfaction, somewhere in these pages you will find 
the cause of your trouble. But if you are making a 
tool not mentioned in this book and it should break, 
find out the reason it broke, also find out how the tool 
does its work and if there is a weak point in the tool. 
Very often a tool will break, although it is made from 
the best quality of steel and it is properly forged, hard- 
ened and tempered, and so always remember to make 
a tool that is apt to break as strong as possible in 
every way, and do not temper the tool any harder than 
"just enough to do the work." 

Again, when trying to improve do not accept the 
advice of every Tom, Dick or Harry as being the best 
way, without first giving it a trial, no matter if the 
advice "does come" from the foreman, superintend- 
ent or the master mechanic. The manager of the com- 
pany whom you are employed with may be competent 
to run the business successfully, but remember, in 19 
cases out of 20 he knows nothing about steel from a 
practical standpoint, with the exception of what he has 
been told. The toolsmith who takes everybody's advice 
without giving it a trial by trying to please everybody. 
will never improve or meet with success. To improve 



216 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 

and become an expert toolsmith, learn all you can 
about working steel, as it is better in these days of 
great competition to be master of one trade than a 
Jack of all trades. Never say to yourself I can't do 
this job or I can't do that, but go ahead and try; do 
your best and if you fail, always try again until you 
accomplish the work in a first class and satisfactory 
manner. Bear in mind that success is reached by 
overcoming difficulties. The author has had many a 
hard trial ana difficulty to overcome connected with 
steel, but by hard work, deep study and perseverance 
has been crowned with success. 

The Blacksmith's Helper. 

A willing and intelligent helper is a great help to 
any blacksmith, and very often the work can be ac- 
complished with greater ease and quicker than if a 
blacksmith has a don't care and a dull minded sort of 
a fellow for his helper, and for the tool fire the helper 
should be fully up to the average for intelligence. 

I know helpers who have better ideas concerning 
how the work should be done than a great many black- 
smiths themselves, and very often a blacksmith has 
been greatly indebted to his helper for certain ideas. 
No blacksmith should have a helper whom he has got to 
be teaching or telling all the time how to strike, neither 
should a helper be helping an overbearing blacksmith, 
as I have known some blacksmiths to be changing 
helpers every week or two, because the helper would 
rather lose his job than help a blacksmith who was 
continually using him more lit;e a machine than a 
brother shop mate. I have had helpers helping me 
on the tool fire from one year's end to the other, and 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 217 

I always treated my helpers as I would like to be 
treated myself and often forming a close and lasting 
friendship. And to all my brother mechanics I wish 
to say, treat your helper as you would like to be treated 
if you were in his place. Do not use him like a slave 
by making him do heavy striking when it is possible 
to do the work under the steam hammer. 

The Danger of Heating More of a Tool When Dressing 
Than What is to be Forged or Hammered. 

To explain this subject fully, we will suppose a 
cold chisel is heated to a high yellow or white heat 
two inches back from the cutting edge, but it is only 
forged or hammered one inch back of the cutting edge. 
Now if this chisel should be hardened two inches from 
the cutting edge, it would break very easy just back 
of the hammered part, when put in use, for this reason. 
If steel is once heated to a very high heat and not 
forged or hammered but hardened, although it should 
be hardened at the proper heat, it does not become 
crystalized the same as when forged or hammered. 
Also, when the steel breaks at the unforged part, the 
break will present a very coarse fracture resembling 
a piece of overheated steel, so bear in mind to forge 
or hammer all the steel that is heated to a high heat, 
especially if it is to be hardened. If the steel is not 
to be hardened, it is not necessary to be so particular 
in working all the heated steel, although steel is always 
stronger when finished at a low heat whether it is to 
be hardened or left unhardened. This information will 
apply directly to small granite hand drills, where only 
half an inch back of the cutting edge can be worked 
with the hammer, and so when dressing small granite 



218 THE TWENTIETH CENTUKY 

hand drills (or any similar drill) be careful not to heat 
to a high yellow any farther back from the cutting 
edge than % of an inch. But when dressing a large 
hand drill such as a miner's hand drill, it will have 
to be heated according to the size. 

Hardening Very Small or Thin Tools. 

When hardening very fine tools, have a small can 
of cold water or brine placed as close as possible to 
the fire, then the tool can be quenched immediately 
after it leaves the fire. Otherwise very thin tools will 
not hold the necessary heat (which is required to 
harden them successfully) long enough to reach the 
ordinary hardening bath. 

More Information About Cold Chisels. 

Although I have given more information concerning 
a cold chisel than any other tool mentioned in this 
book, I have done so because there is no one tool which 
requires so much science or skill as a cold chisel. I 
know some toolsmiths who have worked steel for forty 
years and yet never learned to make a cold chisel that 
would chip any material harder than ordinary cast 
steel and even then it was only guess work. Now, 
reader, I want to impress deeply on your mind, that 
cold chisels can be made to chip from the softest known 
material up to the hardest of chilled metal, but the 
chisels to do this work successfully must vary in soft- 
ness or hardness of temper according to the hardness 
of the material to be chipped, and also vary in shape 
according to the weight of the blow struck by the ham- 
mer. There are a great many mechanics who think 
there is some way of making and tempering a cold 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 219 

chisel so that it will chip everything without breaking 
or being too soft. This is a great mistake, as it is 
impossible for one cold chisel to chip every kind of 
material and at the same time give satisfactory results. 
Instead we must have a number of cold chisels and 
each one made for a certain use. 

The different shapes of chisels as illustrated in an- 
other chapter of this book, will be found to give the 
very best results if made according to the instructions 
and each chisel used for its own particular purpose. 
Blacksmiths and ordinary tool dressers as a rule never 
take the shape of a chisel into consideration ; conse- 
quently, they will very often make a chisel very thin 
when it is required to be made thick or vice versa. 
When making chisels or any other tool, bear in mind 
that no matter how good the quality of the steel may 
be or how well it may be worked, hardened or tem- 
pered, the strength of the tool is always limited, con- 
sequently a thin chisel will always break much easier 
than a thick one especially when given hard and rough 
usage. Of course the general or country blacksmith 
who is making chisels for farmers and others, cannot 
tell how the chisel is going to be used or what material 
it is to chip, therefore the chisel must not be made too 
thin or too thick ; it must be medium, which I have 
classed as ''the ordinary or farmer's chisel," and 
which should be tempered to a light blue. 

Never temper a cold chisel above a light blue unless 
you know for certain it is to chip very hard cast steel 
or cast iron. A chisel to chip very hard cast steel of 
about one per cent carbon, should be tempered to a 
dark blue. The cold chisel No. 4 as illustrated in Fig. 
16 which will be found in another chapter of this book, 
is used for exceedingly hard and rough chipping, the 



220 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 

shape will also apply to long chisel bars such as are 
used in the erecting departments of locomotive shops, 
and a chisel bar for this particular purpose should be 
tempered to a very light blue or almost a grey, as a 
chisel bar does not have to cut or chip any hard ma- 
terial, but it is given very rough usage, consequently, 
it must be made with a very short taper and tempered 
very low in order to keep it from breaking. 

Always remember that if a chisel (or any other tool) 
is properly hardened, the chisel will stand first class 
even if the temper is not drawn to the exact color. 
But if the chisel is improperly hardened by being over- 
heated, it will never stand or do good work no matter 
what temper is drawn afterwards, so make sure the 
chisel is properly hardened. 

Although steel of 75 point carbon is best for making 
all kinds of cold chisels, on account of some bars of 
octagon steel being much higher in carbon than others 
it is almost impossible to always make chisels from 
steel of the proper hardness, and so I wish to say to 
the blacksmith or tooldresser, any time you have to 
dress or make a cold chisel from very high carbon 
steel (say one per cent) harden it at as low a heat 
as it will harden at successfully, and always let the 
temper run down lower. For ordinary use, let the 
temper of a chisel made from high carbon steel draw 
to almost a grey and it will give good results, but bear 
in mind never make a chisel from high carbon steel 
when it is possible to make one from steel of the 
proper carbon, for this reason, a chisel made from high 
carbon steel will keep breaking or splitting off at the 
end which is struck by the hammer. When dressing 
cold chisels, always cut off the old cutting edge after 
the chisel is drawn out to the right thickness before 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 221 

hammering for the last time, then file or grind on a 
new cutting edge. In the ordinary blacksmith shop 
the cutting edge is filed on before tempering the chisel, 
but in large machine shops the cutting edge is ground 
on after the chisel is tempered. 

The different degrees of temperature Fahrenheit re- 
quired to equal the various colors when drawing the 
temper in hot air or oil : 

Color. Deg. of Tem. F. 

Light straw 440 

Dark straw 470 

Copper 500 

Red 520 

Purple 540 

Dark blue 560 

Light blue 590 

Grey 620 

Table of ordinary tools made from cast steel, ar 
ranged alphabetically, giving the color of temper and 
about the percentage of carbon the steel should con- 
tain to give the best results. To understand the fol- 
lowing table of carbon, I will explain, 0.75 is equal to 
75 points, 1.00 is equal to 1 per cent, 1.25 is equal to 
125 points or II/4 per cent. 

Description of tool. Color of temper Carbon 

Axe, broad Ligbt blue 0.75 

Axe, lumberman's chopping . ..Light blue 0.75 

Axe, limestone tooth Light blue 0.75 

Beading tool, boilermaker's . . Light blue 0.75 

Calking tool, boilermaker's . . Light blue 0.75 

Canthooka Light blue 0.75 

Centers, lathe Purple 0.90 



222 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 

Description of tool. Color of temper Carbon 

Chisel, machinists' cold Light blue 0.75 

Chisel, ordinary or farmers' 

cold Light blue 0.75 

Chisel boilermaker's cold Light blue 0.75 

Chisel, blacksmiths' hot Light blue 0.75 

Chisel, blacksmiths' cold Light blue 0.75 

Chisel, railroad track Light blue 0.75 

Chisel, limestone Light blue 0.75 

Chisel, sandstone Light blue 0.75 

Chisel, ordinary granite Light straw 0.75 

Chisel, marble Very light straw 0.75 

Chisel, carpenters' Dark blue 0.75 

Chisel, brick Light blue 0.75 

Clamp, bolt Light blue 0.75 

Cleaver butchers' Light blue 0.75 

Clippers, blacksmiths' bolt . . . Light blue 0.75 

Clinch cutter, horseshoers' . . . Light blue 0.75 

Cutter, ordinary milling Dark straw 0.90 

Cutter, pipe Purple 0.75 

Cutter, horseshoers' hoof Light blue. . . ; 0.75 

Die, ordinary threading Dark straw 0.90 

Digging bars Light blue 0.75 

Drill, twist Purple 0.90 

Drill, ordinary flat Purple 0.75 

Drill, soft rock well Dark blue. 0.75 

Drill, small granite hand Light straw 0.75 

Drill, limestone hand Light blue ....0.75 

Drill, limestone ball Light blue 0.75 

Drill, sandstone Light blue , 0.75 

Drill, small marble Very light straw 0.75 

Hammer, granite bush Light straw 0.75 

Hammer, limestone bush Light blue 0.75 

Hammer, ordinary granite. . . Light straw 0.75 

Hammer, machinists' Light blue 0.75 

Hammer, blacksmiths' Light blue 0.75 

Hammer, car wheel inspectors' Light blue 0.75 

Hardy Light blue 0.75 

Hatchets, woodworkers' Light blue 0.75 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 223 

Description of tool. Color of temper Carbon 

Jaws, blacksmiths' vise Dark blue 0.75 

Jaws, pipe vise Dark blue 0.75 

Knife, pruning Ligtit blue 0.75 

Knife, butchers' Light blue 0.75 

Knife, pocket Light blue 0.75 

Knife, draw Light blue 0.75 

Knife, horseshoers' Dark blue 0.75 

Knife, carpenters' plane Dark blue 0.75 

Knife, harnessmakers' Dark blue 0.75 

Maul, railroad spike Light blue 0.75 

Pick, dirt Light blue 0.75 

Pin, flue expander Dark blue 0.75 

Pincers, horseshoers' Light blue 0.75 

Pitching tool, limestone Light blue 0.75 

Pitching tool, sandstone Light blue 0.75 

Planer tool, soft stone rough- 
ing Light straw 0.90 

Planer tool, ordinary ma- 
chinists' Copper 0.90 

Pliers, wire Light blue 0.75 

Point, granite Light straw 0.75 

Point, limestone or sandstone. Light blue 0.75 

Punch, boilermakers' hand... Light blue 0.75 

Punch, nail Light blue 0.75 

Punch, boilermakers' ma- 
chine Light blue 0.75 

Punch, saw gumming Dark blue 0.75 

Punch, ordinary center Dark blue 0.75 

Razor Purple 0.75 

Reamer, ordinary Purple 0.90 

Rolls, flue expander Dark blue 0.75 

Scraper, wood Purple 0.75 

Screwdriver Grey 0.75 

Set, nail Light blue 0.75 

Set, bricklayers' Light blue 0.75 

Shear blades Dark straw 0.75 

Snap, boilermakers' rivet . . . Light blue 0.75 

Spring, gum (see springs as 

illustrated) Very light blue 0.60 



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TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 225 

Working Steel at Night. 

Considering that the author has done a great deal of 
toolmaking at night, the tools have never been of such 
a good quality or given such good satisfaction as when 
made in daylight. Although there is a certain class 
of tools which can be made with greater success than 
others, for. example take miners' tools. These tools 
are as a rule hardened but not tempered. Therefore 
the heat in the steel can be seen more clearly at night 
than the different colors of the temper. Drawing the 
temper on tools after night is very hard on the eye- 
sight and even then the correct color is very often 
guessed at. When tempering by colors (if possible at 
all), arrange your work so that the tempering may 
be done while there is good daylight, and this rule 
will apply more especially to the toolsmith when the 
days are short if the best results are required. Too 
much light at the tool fire is not good. When there is 
too much light have a blind put up at the window 
which will act as a shade and which will apply more 
especially when the sun is shining directly on the fire. 

A Few Words in Reference to Burnt Steel. 

There are a great many steelworkers, who are always 
looking for some method or compound to restore 
burnt steel and so for the reader's benefit, I will 
give the following information: The meaning of 
"burnt steel" is steel that has been heated to a higher 
heat than what it would stand, thus, when the steel is 
burnt it falls or flies to pieces when being struck by 
the hammer. 

The best method the author has yet discovered is, 



226 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 

being careful in the first place not to burn it, as an 
ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure. The 
next best method is, cut off all the steel that is burnt, 
as it is only time lost trying to restore it to its natural 
state, and the time lost is of more value than the steel. 
Supposing it should be restored successfully, but bear 
in mind, that steel when once burnt is never as good 
as the steel in its ordinary natural state. 

Conclusion. 

In concluding this book, I wish to remind the readers 
that it has been written for their interest, and the 
author has endeavored to give all the necessary in- 
structions and illustrations of all the principal tools 
used by almost every leading trade to insure the great- 
est success in the art of steelwork or toolmaking. I 
have left nothing unwritten which I thought would be 
a help or interest to the readers, and remember, read- 
ers, I have written this book to improve your mechani- 
cal ability and ideas, hoping thereby to help and 
encourage you to strive to reach the highest rung in 
the ladder of mechanical success. 

It is not necessary to work at blacksmithing 10 or 15 
years in order to do good work or become a first class 
toolsmith when you have this volume of information 
at hand. Readers, place a great value on your leisure 
hours, they will be sands of precious gold to you when 
spent in reading this book. Do not simply read "but 
think as you read," and the mechanic (whether young 
or old) who reads and thinks in this way will be well 
rewarded and soon rise above his peers. No doubt 
this book may be the cause of many an argument and 
some may condemn it as being untrue, but befoi'e con- 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 227 

derailing it take my advice and put the instructions 
into practice, and in years to come you will often thank 
the author for bringing this information before you. 
The mechanic who reads this book without putting 
the information into practical use will remain in the 
same old rut. My brother mechanic, you will never 
succeed unless you are willing to branch out and 
accept new ideas or methods. Do not get in the habit 
of thinking you know all about toolmaking or that 
no one can teach you anything more than what you 
already know, as the author takes second place to none 
in the art of general steelwork, yet he occasionally 
gets a new idea or a quicker method from some in- 
ferior mechanic. The author has written this book in 
order to illustrate the most up-to-date methods but if 
the reader (after reading) still fails to put the in- 
formation into practical use or even give the different 
methods a trial, then he will not benefit by the read- 
ing of this book, and the author has failed in his 
attempt to instruct him. Bear in mind that toolwork 
is the very best part of blacksmithing and the black- 
smith or tooldresser in any machine shop, stone yard, 
quarry or mine who happens to be a first class steel- 
worker, holds the respect of all and his services are al- 
ways in great demand, so reader why give up all your 
hopes of becoming a successful steelworker? Your 
chances are equal to that of the author's. He had 
no one to give him a word of encouragement. Neither 
had he a book as complete as this to help him over- 
come his difficulties in connection with steel, so reader 
let your determination be to press on and overcome 
every obstacle which stands in your way. Make use 
of all the brains which God has given you and let 



228 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 

your ambition ever be to rise and take the lead. Your 
success is sure if you do your best. 

Do not be given to be always telling others what 
you can do but keep your tongue quiet and your eyes 
open and always be on the alert to gain knowledge in 
connection with your trade. If you are a first class 
mechanic your customers will judge your workman- 
ship and give you a reputation, and remember, reader, 
a good reputation is worth striving for even if you 
gain it slowly. The author well knows the worth of 
a good reputation which he has gained slowly by the 
combination of hard work, deep study, close observa- 
tion, a vast amount of experimenting and wide travel. 
Reader, the contents of this book is the author's repu- 
tation, so make sure and combine the contents of this 
book with your own practical experience. 

In drawing this book to a close, the author trusts 
and hopes that every reader (who is connected with 
steelworis) will be greatly assisted and placed on a 
foundation for future success. I have not merely 
written this book to improve your mechanical ideas 
and instruct you in the art of toolmaking, but I have 
written it for the sake of the love which I hold for my 
brother mechanics. I have placed my whole heart in 
the work in order that others may share with me in 
the joys of mechanical success. Some readers may 
think I have been rather sarcastic at times, but if I 
have been it was only in reference to a certain class 
of mechanics, in order to point out to them their 
mistakes and thereby illustrate the difference between 
the right and wrong ways and also the difference be- 
tween good and poor tools. 

My closing advice to the reader is, when you are 
making tools that have a cutting edge, maKe sure that 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 229 

they are hardened at the right heat. Hardening steel 
at the right heat is the most important obstacle to be 
overcome in connection with the art of toolmaking, 
for no matter how good the quality of the steel may 
be or how well it is forged, the quality and success 
of a tool will always depend on the proper heat for 
hardening. Again, always remember to do your work 
to the very best of your ability, and follow closely the 
old adage, "whatever is worth doing, is worth doing 
well," and you will soon become master of the "king 
of metals. ' ' 

THE AUTHOR. 



USEFUL FORMULAS. 

Tempering Brass. 

No. lo Brass is rendered hard by hammering or 
rolling; therefore when you make a thing of brass 
necessary to be tempered, prepare the material before 
shaping the article. Temper may be drawn from brass 
by heating it to cherry red and plunging it into water. 

To Case Harden Set Screws for Shafting. 

No. 2. Melt piece prussiate potash the size of a 
bean on spot you want hard while it is hot and plunge 
into water or linseed oil. 

To Case Harden any Particular Spot, Leaving Other 
Spot Soft. 

No„ 3. Make a paste of concentrated solution of 
prussiate of potash and then coat the spot you wish 
to harden ; then expose to strong heat. When red hot, 
plunge into cold water. 

To Case Harden Cast Iron or any other Iron. 

No. 4. Three parts bichromate of potash; one-half 
part common salt. Pulverize well and mix. Heat iron 
to highest heat it will stand; then sprinkle on mix- 
ture and try well on both sides. Cool in water. 

To Case Harden Steel. 

No. 5. Use one part oxalic acid and two parts of 
pulverized common potash. Pulverize them well and 

230 



TOOLSMITH AND STEEL WORKER 231 

thoroughly mix. Heat to cherry red, then roll in 
mixture as you would in borax, then heat again in 
clear fire; cool in water. 

Composition to Convert the Most Impure Scrap While 
in Ladle to No. 1 Castings. 

No. 6. 8 pounds of Copperas. 
3 pounds of Zinc. 
1/2 pound of Tin. 

Throw the above amount in every hundred pounds 
of melted iron. 

Drilling a Larger Hole through Smaller Hole with 
Same Drill. 

No. 7. With the same drill, say you want to drill a 
% hole in piece of iron. Now you want the hole 1 in. 
deep, and 1 inch deeper at bottom and larger at bot- 
tom. To make this drill the % hole first 1 inch deep, 
use a V-shaped drill, then grind the point of same 
drill 14 to one side. Don't grind jt smaller and for 
every % you grind the point to one side, you will 
drill the hole twice that size larger. It will drill 
shoulder where larger hole begins. 

Solution to Harden Cast or Gray Iron to Any Degree, 

No. 8. 1 Pint Oil of Vitriol. 
1 Bushel of Salt. 

1 Pound of Saltpeter. 

2 Pounds of Alum. 

^ Pound of Prussic Potash. 
^ Pound of Cyanide Potash, 



232 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 

Dissolve the whole in three gallons of rain water. 
Heat iron to cherry red and cool in solution. 

Dressing Mill Pick. 

No. 9. To dress mill picks, heat to cherry red and 
dip points while hot in a tallow before hammering. 
Then to temper them: 

2 Ounces Muriate of Ammonia. 
2 Ounces Chloride of Potash. 
2 Gallons Soft Water. 

Heat to cherry red and plunge in solution. If too 
hard add more water. 

To Harden Steel Rolls. 

No. 10. To prevent shrinkage in side and so pre- 
vent bursting take three or four hands full of soot 
and a small hand full of lime in a pail of water. Heat 
cherry red and cool off in solution. 

In tempering cast steel or any steel always use soft 
water, always dip towards the North, and tempering 
round steel, dip perpendicular. Always leave steel 
in water until cold through. 

To Prevent Steel from Springing. 

No. 11. Have some dry common soda, heat steel 
to cherry red, then lay hot steel in soda. Hot steel 
will melt the soda to a liquid. Let it remain till cool. 
Will find a good temper. 

Hammering Cast Steel. 

No. 12. We have often seen smiths spoil a chisel 
or mill pick by hammering it too cold. This will not 



TOOLSMITII AND STEELWORKER 233 

spoil a thick piece of steel but will a thin piece. Better 
take another heat. 

Tempering Bitts, Blades or Knives without Drawing 
Temper, 

No. 13. 1 Ounce Pulverized Corrosive Sublimate. 
2 Ounces Sal Ammoniac. 
Two Hands Full of Salt. 

Dissolve in six quarts soft water. Heat to cherry 
red and plunge in solution and do not draw temper. 
If too strong- add more water. 

Solution to Temper Steel to Any Degree. 

No. 14. 1 Ounce of Blue Vitriol. 
1 Ounce Borax. 
1 Ounce Prussic Potash. 
1/2 Pint Salt. 

Dissolve all in one quart water, then add one gallon 
raw linseed oil and I/2 ounce pulverized charcoal. 
Heat cherry red. Cool in solution. 

Tempering, Hardening, Toughening and Restoring 

Steel. 

No. 15. This formula for compounding the cele- 
brated patented Mergess solution for tempering, tough- 
ening, converting low grade cast steel to higher grade 
and restoring burnt steel. 4 ounces of citric acid in 
one gallon boiling water, dissolve two minutes, then 
add 4 ounces of carbonate of iron, stir for a minute. 
Now let it stand till agitation stops, then add 6 ounces 
prussiate of potash, 2 ounces of saltpeter. Then make it 
into 12 gallons of soft water and stir in six pounds rock 



234 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 

salt. Solution is ready. Temper same as in water. 
But for edge tools bring to proper color, heat slowly, 
dip hot steel in solution once in a while while heating. 

Tempering Steel Springs without Springing. 

No. 16. Heat to cherry red, then let it cool off it- 
self. Then coat the spring with soot that will arise 
from burning resin, then heat evenly until the soot 
disappears, then immerse in linseed oil. Will make 
fine temper. 

« 

Tempering in Bath, Not Fire. 

No. 17. For twist drills, taps, dies, small punches 
or such articles of cast steel you wish to keep straight ; 
take as follows : Equal parts of prussiate of potash and 
common salt, put them together in an iron pot over 
fire when it gets to proper temperature. It will boil 
and become a cherry red. Put the tool in this until 
it becomes a cherry red. You may leave the tool in 
all day if you wish, for the longer the more it improves 
the steel. When you take it out cool in water or lin- 
seed oil, always in a vertical position. Do not draw. 
But for taps or dies draw to dark straw. 

To Harden Cast Iron to Cut Glass or Cutting Purposes. 

No. 18, 2 pounds Common Salt, 
V2 pound Saltpeter, 
% pound Rock Alum, 
% ounce Salts of Tartar, 
^ ounce Cyanide of Potash, 
6 ounces Carbonate of Ammonia. 



TOOLSMITH AND STEELWORKER 235 

Mix and thoroughly pulverize together. Apply this 
to surface when the metal is cherry red and plunge in 
cold, soft water. 

Tempering Round Piece Cast Steel without Springing. 

No. 19. Stir the water fast with stick. While the 
water is in a whirl plunge hot steel in center of whirl 
perpendicular. Water turning around it will keep it 
straight. 

Tempering Drills. 

No. 20. Heat to cherry red and plunge in lump of 
Beeswax and Tallow mixed. Not too much tallow or 
will make soft. 

To Temper a Thin Blade or Knife. 

No. 21. Cut a piece of paper a little larger than 
blade, then heat blade evenly, then lay the paper flat 
on water, lay blade on paper and press under to cool. 
Never mind the theory. Try it. Always dip blades to 
North. 

Remaxks When Welding Cast Steel or Any Steel. 

Always weld the same way. Begin where you left 
off. Take one heat and the next heat begin where you 
left off so the dross and scales will work out. If you 
weld one end then stick the other end the dirt will 
get in center and can't get out and you can not weld 
it any way. 

Welding Cast Steel with Less Heat. 

No. 22. Mix Sal Ammonia with ten times the 
amount of Borax. Fuse well when pulverized. Now 
mix with this an equal quantity of quick lime and use 
as borax. 



236 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 

Welding Steel Bessemer Spring Axles and Tool Steel. 

No. 23. 15 pounds Dry Sand, 

8 ounces of Powdered Sulphate of Iron, 

8 ounces of Black Manganese, 

8 ounces Fine Salt. Use as Borax. 

Welding Cast Steel and Restoring Burnt Steel. 

No. 24. % pound Borax, 

% pound of Sal Ammonia, 
Ys pound of Prussic Potash, 
% ounce of Resin, 
% gill of Alcohol. 

Simmer these in spider over slow fire until well 
chased. Then use as Borax. 

Welding Cast Iron to Steel or Iron. It Will Weld Bet- 
ter than is Generally Known. 

No. 25. 1% pounds of Powdered Copperas, 
1 quart Fine Dry Sand, 
1 Hand Full of Salt. 

Now make the pieces hot and while heating dip 
them in mixture. Throw some on in fire. When iron 
and steel are hot and will stand without running, place 
them quickly together, rub them with piece of steel 
or old file, drawing soft parts over each other. 

Welding Cast Steel Edge Tools or Any Fine Work. 

No. 26. This is the best steel welding compound in 
use today and is known only by a few good smiths: 
Dragon blood pulverized and mixed with borax until 
the borax looks a little pink in color. Use as borax. 



TOOLSMITH AND STEEIAVORKER 237 

Welding Steel Boiler Tubes. 

No. 27. Flare long piece out, fit short piece inside 
the other neatly, then lay in fire. When hot enough 
sprinkle on welding compound. Have helper tap 
lightly on end of short piece, while you take light 
hammer and tap it lightly in fir^e turning all the time. 
Weld it all in fire. 

Repairing Plows, New Shear and Lajnng. 

No. 28. First take old plow, set it on level board. 
See that it measures 16 inches from floor to hitch and 
has 214 inches land. If not, while repairing bring it 
to that, and then it will run right. In laying shears 
take hammer, lay steel 2 by 5-16 and use the welding 
compound mentioned above. Don't make wing of 
shear more than 614 inches wide. For new shares lay 
steel for shares on plow, make wing 6^/^ inches wide, 
cut off on land side what you don't need. Now bend 
wing down shape of old. Lay share piece under and 
weld up. 

Stream Tempering All Heavy Tools. 

No. 29. We will take a hand hammer for example. 
Take a can or keg, make a three-eighths inch hole in 
it ; then heat hammer a cherry red ; then hold peen in 
slack, tub and let three-eighths stream pour on center 
of face until cool enough; then let draw to a dark 
straw color. If it does not draw to right color, heat 
eye wedge put in hole until the right colors appear. 
The old way of dipping in tub cools outside too fast, 
cracks it and makes it shelly. The new way of cool- 
ing center the fastest contracts the steel and makes 
it solid, and it will never crack nor sprall off. 



238 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 

Redressing and Tempering Old Anvils. 

No. 30. Heat old anvil to draw temper; let it cool 
slow, plane off face, heat face to cherry red and while 
hot throw on face a handful of prussiate potash. Then 
cool as fast as possible with a heavy stream on center 
of face. It will be as good as a new anvil. 

Oil Tempering All Heavy Bolts, Blades and Knives. 

No. 31. Heat all flat pieces, knives, blades and bitts 
on edge. If you lay them flat on fire you will spring 
them. Heat to cherry red and plunge in raw linseed 
oil. When cool scour off edge bright. Heat a heavy 
iron, lay tool on, edge up, draw to dark straw color. 

Tallow Tempering for Machinists, Tools and Tools Re- 
quiring Hard, Tough Edge. 

No. 32. Two-thirds tallow and one-third beeswax; 
add to this a little saltpeter to toughen steel. Dis- 
solve all and mix. Heat point of tool cherry red ; dip 
point of tool in solution as you would in water and 
let it draw only to a light straw color. This is a good 
thing. It improves the steel; all tools will have a 
hard, tough edge. 

Case Hardening Steel Plow Mold Boards. 

No, 33. Make a brine of salt and rain water to hold 
up an egg: add a little saltpeter. Heat steel or mold 
board cherry red, and while hot sprinkle on face prus- 
siate potash and plunge toward the north in the brine. 
Let it lay in the brine until cool through and it will 
not spring nor crack. 



TOOLSMITU AisD STEELWOEKER 239 

Bending Gas Pipe without Breaking. 

No. 34. Heat pipe good red heat. If heat is too 
long, cool off pipe to where you want the bend. Then 
put end of pipe in fork on anvil, and while bending 
let helper pour a small stream of water on inside of 
bend where it looks like kinking. You can bend any 
shape this way. 

Brazing with Copper or Brass. 

No. 35. Scarf the ends of pieces so they fit nice. 
Then clamp the pieces so they fit nice and can not 
slip. Then lay on fire ; put on top side the copper that 
you think is necessary, and then put on some charred 
borax or Monarch Welding Compound. Then heat iron 
until the copper melts. Take a file and keep the cop- 
per where you want it, and then lay it down and let 
cool. This way you can braze iron, steel or malleable 
iron. 

How to Weld Cast Steel with Borax, 

No. 36. Put borax in a pot on a slow fire and boil 
it until it becomes dry like dust: Stir it all the time 
it is cooking. Then use the dust. You will find it 
welds much better, as cooking it takes the sulphur 
out of it, and you will get a clear fire and a nice clean 
heat. 

How to Weld Anything Likely to Slip. 

Such as steel tires, but not good for cast steel. 
No. 37. To one pound of pulverized borax add two 
ounces of sal ammoniac. Put a little on tire cold, and 
when it gets hot it will get very sticky and hold the 
tire in place so you can handle it. When the tire gets 
hot put on more. Weld at a borax heat. 



240 THE TWENTIETH CENTUBT 

Welding or Soldering Band Saws, 

No. 38. File scarfs so they fit together nicely ; then 
put a piece of silver solder between laps, or a silver 
coin will do. Then put on some muriatic acid, or some 
charred borax is just as good. Then heat a pair of 
very heavy jawed tongs ; heat to a very high heat ; hold 
laps of saw between jaws of tongs until welded. They 
weld very quick, and will not break where welded. 
Some pour water on tongs to cool -them off fast. 

How to Work Self -Hardening Steel (Called Mushet 

Steel). 

No. 39. Heat to cherry red ; forge to desired shape ; 
then heat again to cherry red; lay in air to cool — the 
more air the harder it will be. To make very hard, 
hold in cold blast. 

Instructions for Tempering Pneumatic Tools. 

And for some heavy shear knives where it does not 
require too hard a temper. 

No. 40. Heat tool all over; heat very slowly, so 
it will heat through to cherry red, and plunge tool in 
linseed oil and let it lay in oil until it is cool clear 
through. This will give a good temper on any tool 
required hard all over. 



HORSE, OX AND 
MULE SHOEING 



MULES AND MULE-SHOEING 

The term mule in its. ordinary acceptation is gener- 
ally employed to designate the offspring of "cross" 
between the equine and asinine species. Mule:s are of 
two kinds: the mule proper, which is the hybrid, 
product of a male ass with a mare; and the hinny, 
which is the offspring of a stallion and a female ass. 
'The mule proper is the more valuable of the two, and 
it is to its production the attention of breeders is 
directed. Breeding of mules is difficult, owing to. the 
antipathy of the equine species to the asinine. 
Besides this, abortion readily occurs and more care 
must be taken during pregnancy in breeding mules 
than is necessary in breeding horses or asses. The! 
mule foal does not grow as fast, nor is it as strong on 
its limbs as the horse foal. It is of no use before it is 
four years old, because it ij longer in reaching 
maturity; but it is useful for a longer period than the 
horse, often working until it is fifty years old, and will 
live till seventy-five. The mule and the ass enjoy an 
extraordinary immunity from disease. In the cam- 
paign in Egypt in 1882, the English horses suffered 
very extensively from malarious fever, but the mules 
were entirely exempt. In our own iate war the same 
conditions obtained. Nevertheless those diseases 
which attack the asinine species, generally run their 
course with great rapidity. Glanders, for example, 

1 



2 Scientific Horse, Mule, and Ox Shoeing 



often appears in the chronic form in the horse, while 
in the mule and ass this disease is most acute. 

Mules are reared in North and South America, and 
the districts for breeding in the United States are 
Kentucky, Kansas and Missouri. 

The foot of the mule is different from that of the 
horse. In front it is round, but from the quarters back 
to the heels it is straight and perpen- 
dicular, having the shape of a con- 
tracted foot of a horse. In -shoeing 
care should be taken that the hoof 
is not allowed to grow out too long. 
The heels should be pared down so 
that the frog is allowed to touch the 
ground. Mules often go lame on 
account of the heels growing almost 
together, pressing against the navicu- 
lar bone, and causing contraction and corns. The 
shoes should be made in the shape as shown in Fig. 
57, otherwise shoe as a horse. 




OXEN 

Oxen seem to have been the first of the domesticated 
animals, and were undoubtedly one of the most 
important agents in the development of early history. 
We find them mentioned in the oldest wfitten records 
of the Hebrew and^Hindu peoples, as well as figured on 
Egyptian monuments raised 2,000 years before the 
Christian era. Remains of domesticated specimens 
have been found in the Swiss lake dwellings, together 
with stone implements and other records of Neolithic 
man. In early communities an individual's wealth 
was measured by the number of cattle he possessed. 
Abraham, it is said, was x\z\\ in cattle. Oxen few a 



Mutes and Mtile-SJioeink 



long period formed, as they still do among Central 
African tribes, . the favorite medium of exchange 
between individuals and nations. After the introduc- 
tion of metal money into ancient Greece, the former 
method of exchange was commemorated by stamping 
the image of an ox on the new money. The same 
custom has left its impression on the different lan- 
guages of Europe. The English word "pecuniary" 
and the Swedish word "pekuniara" are derived from 
"pecus" — cattle. The value the ancients attached to 
the ox is further shown by the sign of the Zodiac, in 
which a bull figures. The bull, according to the 
Hindus, was the first animal created by the three 
divinities, who were directed by the Supreme Deity to 
furnish the earthVith 
animated beings. The 
ox also played an im- 
portant part in Greek 
and Roman mythol- 
ogy. The Hindus 
were not allowed to 
shed the blood of an 
ox. The Egyptians 

could only do so in their religious sacrifices to their 
gods. Hindus and Jews were both forbidden in their 
sacred writings to muzzle the ox while treading out the 
corn. To kill an ox wantonly was regarded as a great 
crime, punishable with exile among the Romans. 




b'igure 68 Ox-shoe, Right Half 



OX-SHOEING 



Since the ox has become a burden-carrying animal it 
has been found necessary to shoe his feet, in order to 
protect them against a foot wear detrimental to his 
usefulness as well as health, and to give him a sure 



Mules and Mule-Shoeiri^ 



foothold on icy or slippery roads. The ox being a 
less intelligent animal than the horse, must oe shod in 
a different manner -In shoeing, the ox must be put in 



( 



1 



■ 





Figure 70 Figure 71 

Heller Bros". Hammers for Horseshoers 

a stall or rack', where he is firmly held in a position 
from which there is no escape while the shoes are put on. 



Scientific Horse, Mute, and Ox Shoeing 



OX-SHOES 

The first thing to be done when the oxen is brought 
to the shop is the making of the shoes. Ox-shoes 





Figure 72 Figure 73 

Heller Bros". Hamrriers 'or Horseslioers. 

are different from other shoes, being made in halves, 
one half on each claw, thus the claws will be free and 



Mules and Muic-Shoeing 



independent of each other, as in the unshod 

condition. Ox-shoes should be made of iron oi 

soft steel l\"^i"-, narrow at 

the toe and wide at the heel, 

as shown in Fig. 68, with six 

nail holes for No. 5 nails. In 

preparing the foot for the shoe 

care should be taken not to 

rasp off too much from the 

foot, as the horn is thin, and if 

it is worn some it is still thinner. 

Rasp just as little as possible 

in order to get a bearing for the 

shoe. The shoe should also fit 

to the edges of the feet well. 

In nailing the shoes care must 

be taken not to drive the nails 

in to the quick. The shell is 

thin, especially at the heels. 

Do not draw the clinches hard, 

and remove the chip under the 

clinch with a narrow chisel. 

Do not rasp after the shoe is 

nailed. 

SHOEING KACK 

In Fig. 69 a shoeing rack is 
represented that will be found 
effective in holding any ox 
while shoeing. The size of the 
timber is 10 inches square, 12 
feet long, posts 8 inches square, 8 feet high. The 
blocks on the sides are for the fi'ct to rest on held 
by the clevis. The illustration e.xplaijns itself. 




Figure 74 

Heller Bros'. Hammer 

for Horseshoers 



8 Scientific J^orse, Mule, and Ox Shoeing 

TRUSH 

Trush is a nasty disease of the foot, secreting 
unhealthy and offensive smelling matter from the cleft 
of the frog. All classes of horses are more or less sub- 
ject to this disease. The cause of the disease is 
mostly the filthy and unclean condition of the stable 
in which the animal is kept. Mares are liable to con- 
tract the disease in the hind feet, while the gelding 
and the stallion will develop it in the fore feet. Hard 
work on hard roads, a sudden change from dryness to 
excessive moisture may also induce this disease. The 
treatment consists in cleanliness. The diseased parts 
are to be pared away, the foot should then be poulticed 
fol- a day or two with boiled turnips, to which should 
be added a few drops of carbolic acid and a handful of 
powdered charcoal to absorb the secretion and destroy 
the offensive odor. The cleft of the frog should be 
filled with dry calomel, and the foot dressed with 
oakum and a roller bandage, which m^ay be changed 
every other day. A long run in a clean pasture is a 
good thing. Shoes with high calks should be used 
when the horse must be shod, in order to raise the foot 
out of the mud as much as possible. Shoes with com- 
mon calks should be restored when the disease is 
cured. 

MANGE 

Mange Is a skin disease, caused by an insect lodged 
in the skin, producing terrible itch and scab, causing 
the hair to fall off in patches, and the horse to ru^ 
against everything. 

Wash the affected parts in soap water quite warm, 
dry and then rub in the following ointment: oil of 
tar, 4 ounces; sulphur. 6 ounces; linseed oil, one pint. 



A COMPLETE ENCYCLOPEDIA 
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CYCLOPEDIA 

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CoYering Everything Connected with the Allied Trades 

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Easy steps In Architecture 



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By FRED T. HODGSON. 



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Modern Machine Shop Practice 



INCLUDING 



PATTERN MAKING and 
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By BROOKES and HAND. 



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JW 4-4 



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